Synthesis of Five Francophone Africa Country Studies on the Effectiveness of Informatics Policy Instruments in Africa (Original French)

by M. Marius T. Francisco, October 1995

Introduction
I. Information Policy Instruments
1.1. The African Information Environment from 1960-1970
1.1.1 Computer Specifications in the 60's and 70's
1.1.2 Personnel
1.1.3 Maintenance of Equipment
1.1.4 Supply of Consummables
1.1.5 Workshop
1.1.6 Constraints in the use of computers
1.2 The political will
1.3 National Information policy instruments
1.3.1 Reference Points
1.3.2 The Objectives of National Information Policies In Africa
II. Study of the African Structures for the Promotion of Information Technology Use
2.1 the African Context
2.2 Congo
2.2.2 OCI
2.2.3 the Information Plan
2.2.4 The balance sheet
2.3. Cameroon
2.3.1 Information technology policy instruments in Cameroon Conclusion
2.3.2 Suppliers of information technology in Cameroon
2.3.3 Users of information technology in Cameroon
2.3.4 Back-up instruments to information technology
2.3.5 Information Technology Development Instruments
2.3.6 Derivative Instrument from Information Technology
2.3.7 International Cooperation Instruments
2.3.8 Technological Transfer Instruments
2.3.9. General Remarks
Conclusions
2.5. The Case of Cote D'ivoire
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Inventory of the Instruments of National Informatics Policy
2.5.3 Detailed Analysis of Some Instruments
2.6. The Case of Senegal
2.6.1 Introduction: Science and Technology Policy
2.6.2 Informatics Development Policy
2.6.3 Analysis of the Present Situation
Conclusion
2.7. General Conclusions
2.7.1.Effectiveness of Informatics Policies

Introduction

Most of the early information processing machines used in French-speaking countries were passed down from the colonial masters. These machines included card punches, checking machines, sorting machines, filing machines, all generally known then as calculators. The only computer centres were located in Dakar for French West Africa and in Brazzaville for French Equatorial Africa.

The Dakar Centre was established on 1 August 1948, the Brazzaville Centre in 1952 and the Grande Ile Centre in Madagascar in 1953. The Côte d'Ivoire Centre, by 1952, was equipped with similar machines.

The National Institute for Foreign Trade and Economic Studies (France) was established for data processing. The early BULL GAMMA 30 and IBM 1401 computers were manufactured within the first decade of independence for African budget management. At the same period, a French service company, SINORG established in francophone countries budget management applications. Old machines were subsequently replaced as new computer centres were being set up although the majority of the workers were expatriates assisted by other workers from the manufacturing companies such as IBM and BULL.

The development of the computer industry started gaining strategic prominence in France as from the 70s. African policy makers started showing interest especially when France established its computer plan intended to make France a self-sufficient in the industry.

Although African policy makers were not very familiar with computers at that period, they were becoming increasingly aware that computers could be a precious instrument for public finance management and could even boost government's power.

The first information personnel in the public sector made a significant impact by spreading information technology throughout Europe in general and in France in particular.
During the Summit of the African and Madagascan Joint Organization (OCAM) held in 1970, in

-Lamy, now known as N'djamena, the Heads of State decided to establish the African Information Institute with headquarters in Libraville, thereby bringing information technology to the highest government level.

I. Information Policy Instruments

Computer Science

Although the relevance of computer science was acknowledged, policy makers were not adequately sensitized. They therefore need to do a lot more by way of sensitization and promotion of national information policy.

1.1. The African Information Environment from 1960-1970

Defining an information policy consists in knowing the environment, standard and structural constraints, costs and implementable objectives.

1.1.1 Computer Specifications in the 60's and 70's

From 1960-1980, the smallest computers were the MINI types. Their installation required dehumidified, air-conditioned glass houses with false ceilings and floors and hidden cable connections. Disks had to be dust-free; the electrical equipment included converters, powerful ondulators and battery-operated energy sources.

About 2% of government budget revenues were allocated for the purchase of these equipment.

1.1.2 Personnel

There are three categories of personnel in the computer center:

• Information experts in charge of analysis, programming and tests; they are generally expatriates from service companies
• National technicians who are keyboarding personnel
• Local support and administrative staff.

Experts generally earn 60 times as much as the salary of a civil servant.

1.1.3 Maintenance of Equipment

There are several types of equipment maintenance contracts:

• Hardware and software rental and maintenance
• Keyboarding equipment maintenance
• Air conditioners maintenance

The first two categories take up the bulk (80%) of budget allocations for maintenance.

1.1.4 Supply of Consummables

In addition to spare parts which form part of the maintenance contracts, the following items have to be imported:

• Punch cards and diskettes
• Hard disks
• Printing ribbons
• Continuous stationery

1.1.5 Workshop

For the benefit of the users, it is necessary to set up a workshop equipped with:

• A decarboniser
• A contact breaker
• A massicot
• Heavy duty staplers

1.1.6 Constraints in the use of computers

From the foregoing, computer installation, maintenance, staff emoluments, consummables are difficult and expensive items for which resources are often not available in the developing countries.

Allocating funds for these items is, therefore, a gamble especially that the results quite often fall short of expectation.

The under-utilization of the processing facilitates within the few existing centres has resulted in budget restrictions and reduced efficiency. Users had initially greeted the computers and the expatriates manning them with skepticism. Only political will, if it existed, would help remove such handicaps.

1.2 The political will

Those who went through that period still wonder today how information technology managed to survive the harsh environment where African policy makers had other priorities to address. It was only those who preserved and introduced the computers to the public at large who eventually made the case for computer utilization.

The key role which the only existing computer in the world played in the United States during the Second World War, the establishment of an international computer centre in Rome for the European countries underscored the relevance of a balanced sharing of information. A jointly-owned computer centre was required since the European countries by themselves could not afford such huge facilities.

Ever since, governments in the developed countries have initiated assertive policies which have gradually shaped a vast body of information science. This reality dawned on the French as America clamped an embargo on the delivery of CDC 6 600 to the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) in a bid to stop France's atomic research programme considered by General de Gaulle as a boost to the French autonomy and industry.

Meanwhile, their was an increasingly in Africa that if the under-developed countries of today are those that missed the industrial revolution, those of tomorrow will be those that miss the information revolution.

It was not easy to initiate an information policy in every African country but some government quarters were receptive to information technology. The offices of the President and Prime Minister, the Ministries of Finance and Planning allocated funds for the building of computer centres. National information policies were formulated and backed up with both legal and structural resources.

1.3 National Information policy instruments

As information technology gained strategic prominence over the years, assertive development policy became necessary.

1.3.1 Reference Points

We may recall briefly the ambitions and the development policies of the pioneering countries before we go into the machinery put in place in Africa for the promotion of information technology.

1.3.1.1 United States

The United States was the first manufacturer of computers; it has ever since been aware if their importance and has significantly patronized national manufacturers competing for an edge in the computer industry. IBM has taken the lead but it also competes with HONEYWELL, CONTROL DATA, GENERAL ELECTRIC, BURROUHGS UNIVAC, NCR, etc.

1.3.1.2 Great Britain

Great Britain effectively joined the race in 1965. Labour Prime Minister Wilson told his Technology Minister "Your most important task is to save the British industry from the computers". The Minister, in turn, asked the House of Commons on 1 March, 1965 to promote "a rapid increase in the use of computers and related technology in a bid to boost trade and industry"

France, Germany, Japan henceforth decided to promote computer utilization and build local capacity for computer manufacturing. With the support of the British government, the ICC group was established and soon became the fourth world largest computer manufacturer.

1.3.1.3 Japan

Japan, more than any other country, did not want to do away with its protectionist policy. Japan had to acquire the emerging technology through a clever license policy that did not mortgage its autonomy. The power Ministry of Trade and Industry (MITI) of the new technology and provided large financial resources coupled with the contribution of:

• Japan Electronic Industry Development Association (JEIDA)
• Japan Computer Utilization Development in Industry (JACUDI)
• Japan Information Processing Development Centre (JIPDEC)
• Japan Electronic Computer Company (JECC)

This policy culminated in an ambitious 5th generation computer programme which catapulted Japan to the top of information technology list.

1.3.1.4 Germany

Although Germany failed to bail out its first computer company (ZUSE) from BROWN BOVERI, an Swiss group that bought the company in 1964, Germany eventually joined the race with SIEMENS, which by 1967 had bought back 70% of SUZE's shares from the Swiss group. Another big company competing for the computer market was AEG-TELEFUNKEN, NIXDORF is the third major company contributing the German self-sufficiency in computer manufacturing.

1.3.1.5 France

We all remember the circumstances under which France built its nuclear power with the disapproval of the American government. The first French computers, GAMM 3, was built by the BULL group under the supervision of the American General Electric on 16 April 1964. The American government, however, refused the delivery of a control data computer 6 600 to the French Atomic Energy Commission. It was clear from this American attitude that a modern nation needed to be in control of its own decisions. Indeed, the American government justified its decision by saying "A regular feature of our general policy over the years is to refuse export license for equipment likely to be used in building independent military atomic forces in countries which had not acceded to the Moscow Treaty on partial stop to military tests"

General de Gaulle could not stomach this insult without reacting. From 1996, the Planning Commissioner, Mr. Ortoli, was asked by the French government to submit a report on the objectives of a computer programme and resources required to implement it. Following this report, Mr. Ortoli was asked to:

• Propose a general information policy and make government offices and parsatatals implement it.
• Design and implement a general data processing development plan for France.
• These directives resulted in:
• The setting up of a French Computer plan through an act of 19 July, 1966.
• The establishment of an information technology department through a decree of 8 October, 1966.
• A greater government control of the equipment policy of the civil service and that of the French parastatals, the establishment of ministerial committees on information technology through a circular of 7 December, 1967.

The mandate of the committees covered:

• The establishment of medium-term equipment plans
• The right selection of equipment in keeping with the industrial policy requirements of the computer plan.

These committees were answerable to an Inter-Ministerial Information Technology Commission, which in turn, was presided over by a State Minister of Information Technology.

1.3.2 The Objectives of National Information Policies In Africa

Ever since the era of General de Gaulle, the French computer plan, the Inter-ministerial commission and committees, the computer technology department, and subsequently Francois Mitterrand, the impact of the Paris World Computer Center has been felt in Africa although the objectives and aspirations were not the same. After all, these were developing countries. The English-speaking countries drew on the British experience with which they were more familiar. Generally, no country could escape from the powerful and justifiable change like Information Technology as an invaluable instrument for management, development which held the key to the future.

Information Technology was thus seen as a strategic area which required a very assertive development policy.

Pressures came from above as many public services and companies, wary of what they at times considered to be a technological folly if not a spending spree, dragged their feet. In order to deal with these impediments, it was necessary to step up advocacy efforts and use development teaching methods, practical, legal and structural instruments.

In Francophone Africa, typical examples of such policy ranged from the monopolistic policies in Congo to the stringent policy in Madagascar and Cameroon to the more or less open policies in Cote d'Ivoire and Senegal.

II. Study of the African Structures for the Promotion of Information Technology Use

Information Technology

2.1 The African Context

As witnesses to the all-important struggle between the developed countries, African States have increasingly felt the need not to be left out of the Information Technology race. They were all aware of the need to:

• Do all within their power to draw maximum benefit from the use of computers
• Build domestic capacity for computer operation by training local manpower
• Persuade and possibly compel the civil service, parastatals and the private sector to comply with specific guidelines laid down for computerization
• Explore the possibility of eventually setting up a computer manufacturing industry. This required putting in place flexible structures and procedures.

2.2 Congo

2.2.1 The Establishment of the Congolese Computer Department (OCI)

As far back as 1952, the Governor General of the French Equatorial Africa (FEA) established a data processing workshop with traditional IBM equipment for the processing of civil service payroll, the FEA customs statistics and other statistical data.

Following the signature in 1959 of the convention establishing in the conference of Equatorial African Heads of States, the workshop became the For Equatorial African States Data Processing Center (CMEAE) still located in Brazzaville.

With the dissolution of the FEA federation, CMEAE was decentralised with new data processing workshops located in Libreville, Bangui, N'djamena and in the second largest Congolese city of Pointe Noire.

Following the installation in 1964 of the first computer in Brazzaville, a card-based IBM 1401 the consultancy firm located in Brazzaville was asked to design new applications including payroll revision, taxes and tax recovery, capital expenditure, foreign trade statistics (customs). As soon as these applications were completed, they were introduced to each State.

In 1969, the CMEAE became the Trans-Equatorial Computer Center (CITE).

CITE was the end result of two projects:

• The establishment of a processing system with a central computer located in Brazzaville and connected by short waves to other satellite computers in other countries.
• Opening of an Inter-State school for the training of computer technicians for Central Africa.

The second project gave birth to the African Computer Institute by the decision of Heads of State, members of the Joint African and Madagascan Organization (OCAM).

However, the second project - too ambitious at that period - never took off the ground.

The parent body finally folded up leaving each country with its owm computer centre in 1972.

For its part, Congo established in April 1972 the Congolese Computer Department (OCI) which inherited all the staff members and equipment left behind in Congo.

Established on 10 April 1972 by a presidential order, OCI was an industrial and commercial institution with civil personality and financial autonomy whose initial objectives were to:

• Conduct a study on processes to be mechanized
• Carry out information processing
• Train technical staff
• Create an enabling information environment in the country
• Diversify information sites, in the public and private sectors

2.2.2 OCI

An Instrument Of Information Development And Dissemination In Congo

2.2.2.1 Introduction

The history of information technology in Congo coincided with that of OCI as the latter was the only company in charge of information in Congo since its emergence in 1973 up to date. Although it lost its monopoly in 1988, it remains a privileged government instrument for the implementation of the national information policy.

This chapter aims at reviewing OCI's contribution in popularizing the use of information technology in all facets of national life and the human, material and financial resources put at its disposal for the achievement of its mission.

2.2.2.2 A brief Background of OCI

As mentioned earlier, OCI was established by an edict No. 14/72 of 10 April 1972 following the withdrawal of Congo from CITE, the institution which first introduced information technology to Congo and the entire Central African region. OCI was placed under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance and Planning, which was also responsible for economic planning and reforms. In the first three years, OCI was a service company competing with other similar companies, like SINORG, in the same sector.

The Congolese Government gave OCI political support and assistance in order to maintain its sovereignty and have a control over its administrative and accounting data processing; foreign exchange savings through rational use of effective processing equipment. It helped the company to find its feet on the national market by giving it, through an Edict No. 19/76, the monopoly to import, use information equipment entering Congo and the monopoly to conduct studies and develop information applications.

Under this arrangement, no company operating in Congo could deal with any organization other than OCI; the latter was thus insulated from competition with the private sector with some resultant social, economic and financial risks.

Consequently, OCI's level and scope of activity expanded. Apart from equipment supply, staff and information processing system, it also controlled exclusively all activities pertaining to information technology.

However, OCI was limited in its services and activities in the sense that:

• After-sale services were provided by authorized manufacturers in Congo
• Some sectors such as banks and petroleum companies, by a special waiver, handled the bulk of their own information system
• Micro-computers emerged on the market while OCI conveniently ignored its existence in preference to big information equipment.

Over the years OCI concentrated its activities on the public sector and parastatals and to a lesser degree on the private sector.

Ministries which benefitted from computerization included:

• Ministry of finance (budget, civil service payroll, taxes, customs, treasury, etc)
• Ministry of public service (civil service files)
• Ministry of planning (statistics)
• Ministry of education (school enrolment files, baccalaureate results, school statistics)
• Others

Beneficiary parastatals included:

• The national electricity company (SNE) (electricity bills, staff account and management)
• Hydro-Congo (petroleum products marketing process)
• Congo's insurance and reinsurance (ARC) (policy and disaster)
• Others.

Nonetheless, in June 1980 OCI was affected by the first restructuring programme conducted by SINORG at the request of the government in readiness for the conference of government corporations in August 1980. During that conference new mandates were given to OCI, namely:

• To improve the quality of services
• To put in place an analytical accounting system for an improved tariff structure
• To strengthen foreign technical assistance in support of current and future important activities
• To train senior officials who would eventually take over the technical assistance
• To reorganize its structure so as to carry out the new mandates given by the government.

Once again, OCI obtained its monopoly as a privileged State instrument for the promotion of information technology.

In 1982, under a ten-point information plan, the Congolese Ministry of Planning embarked on a gradual computerization programme of the entire nations focusing on:

1. Strategies

2. Tactics

3. Logistics

4. Finances

5. Extension services

6. Motivation

7. Administrative maturity

8. Infrastructure

9. Basic technology

10. Implementation methods

The Congolese Government provided OCI with huge financial resources for the achievement of the information plan objectives and OCI experienced its widest expansion within that period.

There was subsequently a massive purchase of HP 3000 Hewlett Packard computers to the deteriment of the IBM's which OCI installed in dedicated sites. OCI also sent keyboard operators to run these sites.

Information applications were handled by the OCI consultancy offices which had then only analyst-programmers and programmers. For its design and analysis studies, OCI had to approach SINORG which had the skilled manpower.

Information technology was eventually decentralized only in terms of operation with the new dedicated sites still remaining under the OCI.

The information plan recorded only a 55 per cent implementation rate; reasons for this failure will be considered later.

In 1988, with pressures from the big companies displeased with OCI's performance and especially with the emergence of the micro-computers, the Congolese Government had to put an end to OCI's monopoly of information technology. This decision resulted in the massive withdrawal of some customers who promptly set up their own computer centres and hired staff members sacked by OCI.

Since the withdrawal of monopoly was not accompanied by any support measures, OCI went through a difficult financial period because only the government continued to subsidize it. It also faced a stiff competition from other service companies seeking to take from OCI its few remaining customers.

OCI was faring so badly that in 1990, it came under a second restructuring plan conducted this time by CENAGES which recommended the following measures:

• A complete reorganization of OCI
• A redefinition of its mandate geared mainly towards the public sector using the big information equipment and towards the parastatals and private sectors using micro-computers.

Unfortunately, it was not possible to implement this plan as Congo went through a serious political crisis.

2.2.2.3 Available resources

In view of the monopoly enjoyed by OCI, it employed the majority of information technology staff in Congo and had under its control the overall information potential.

Human resources

OCI currently employs nearly 300 people responsible for:

• Consultancy 55
• Operation 66
• Administration 66
• Data collection 61

It was observed from this list that:

• The consultancy staff which were supposed to implement the applications accounted for only 20 per cent of the entire staff;
• Skills for project design and implementation were still inadequate.

Thus, OCI had to approach SINORG in order to meet its own requirements in terms of design and organization staff.

Financial resources

In 1982, the Congolese Government provided a significant subsidy to enable OCI achieve the objectives laid down by the conference of government corporations.

OCI's budget is currently estimated more than FCFA two billion of which more than 55 per cent is earmarked for staff salary while little is set aside for investment; Moreover, revenues continue to dwindle for two reasons:

• The loss of some important customers
• Reduced government contribution

Technical resources

Technical resources comprise:

1. Development programme consisting of:

• One Bull DPS-6
• One HP-3000 installed at OCI

But the bulk of the development is done directly on customers'sites. A crying need for development tools and the lack of working standards and methods were also noticed.

2. An operational environment comprising:

• Six HP-3000 computers installed at the customers' sites the majority of which are government offices

Since some customers have now acquired their own equipment, all OCI does is to supply staff to operate such equipment. It should be noted that these computers are directly maintained by their respective manufacturers, and there is no network connecting all these computers.

OCI's progress report

The bulk of OCI's activities were implemented between 1972 when it was established and 1988 when its monopoly was withdrawn.

Indeed, with the monopoly it enjoyed from 1976, OCI concentrated its efforts on a comprehensive computerization of the public sector and the parastatals and to a lesser extent the private sector. Dedicated sites were established while OCI supplied equipment and operating staff. Demand for computerization was then very high and OCI had to hire massively mainly graduates of IAI and approach SINORG for assistance in designing new applications. Information technology thus increasingly assumed prominence in the Congolese administration.

Although it has largely contributed to the introduction of information technology in Congo, OCI was seriously criticised. As a privileged government instrument with its own characteristics, it was criticised among other things for:

• Its inability to chart a consistent information policy for the government
• Taking undue advantage of its monopoly
• The lack of initiatives in diversifying the use of information equipment
• The delay tactics by the management and their inabiligy to implement a gradual but consistent computerization of the Congolese society
• Inability to satisfay the growing demands for computerization
• Marginalizing information technology training
• Inability to involve the authorities in information technology

That is why the government withdrew OCI's monopoly when it was observed that it could no longer play its role but was rather an impediment to advanced technology.

Since OCI was not ready for such developments, its managers did nothing to meet the challenge of a coming information revolution. Meanwhile its old customers were withdrawing either by setting up their own computer centres or by seeking the services of other more competitive companies.

Thus, OCI was limited to maintaining old applications pending the time when the authorities would take the initiatives for a fresh reorganization.

2.2.3 The Information Plan

2.2.3.1 Introduction

It will be recalled that the first information plan was initiated by OCI, which was also the executing agency thereby acting both as the judge and the judged. It was also observed there was no independent neutral body to assess objectively the implementation of the plan.

Nevertheless, the preparation and implementation of the information plan was a significant progress in the rationalization policy for the use of information technology.

We will attempt to review only the main objectives of this plan and the highlight of its implementation high points.

2.2.3.2 Objectives of the information plan

The plan was initiated at a time when computerization was expensive. In a bid to save costs it was necessary to define a consistent policy for the gradual implementation of a computerization programme.

The following objectives were laid down under the information plan:

• The design of a strategy likely to curb the unbridled explosion of processing equipment

The objective on one hand was to curtail the mushrooming of incompatible equipment and on the other, to achieve economy of scales and a reasonable mix of technical and financial solutions.

Faced with competition from manufacturers and their systematic sales policy, goverenment decided to make OIC the sole owners of computers. Only OCI could rent out computers, hardware and software.

• Popularizing the information technology tool through a sound training policy

The success of a computerization programme depends on a good understanding of the equipment used and services it offers to administrations and policy-makers alike. Thus, information planning in Congo consisted in providing the largest number of users with the required technology. The objective is to have an extensive promotion through information and public awareness programme.

• Decentralization of equipment

Big organizations' management information systems should be decentralized by setting up smaller computer centres with light equipment to replace, with time, the big centres.

However, a good accounting system should be kept for these equipments for a better data integration and equipment inter-connection in the automated administrative units.

• Developing, managing and centralizing projects

Resources required at the national level will be determined and centralized for the standardization of the equipment and methods used. Pooling of resources will help speed up the rather expensive training of top level technical staff required for the implementation of projects and increasingly sophisticated systems.

Uniform methods should be applied in order to facilitate training, maintenance, documentation and project coordination. OCI should have programming or data system management software. Programme products should be developed or updated as they are in great demand by users.

Setting up of infrastructures including data transmission

Users and managers alike need information. A general policy for the harmonization of files should be applied in order to have a better data integration and equipment inter-connection. Efforts should be concentrated on equipment that can process data remotely for custumers and make possible rapid exchange of information between policy makers by connecting nation information systems to bigger international networks.

• Initiating a training and information policy

The objective here is to speed up an independent national information technology so as to avoid, using external resources where a good domestic resource mobilization would have solved several problems.

Thus, a training institute should be set up for a speedy training of information technology and maintenance staff.

Development strategy

Information technology is so important that it will be unrealistic to give it a neutral role in the development process.

Thus, policy makers should have economic and financial data banks. This important objective should be reflected in programming information projects bearing in mind their contributions to such banks.

It will be noted that the objectives of the information plan were laudable and ambitious. Progress made in information technology in Congo will be determined by the extent to which the plan is implemented.

2.2.3.3 The information plan implementing organ

The information plan was entrusted to OCI as a privileged government institution and managers of the plan.

OCI had to be reorganized functionally and officially, in order to successfully implement this plan.

Functional development

OCI's functions are of two types, namely technical and administrative.

The technical structures should be developed not only to meet requirements of the government and those companies wanting to use modern equipment such as the computers but also to adapt to the continuous advances made in information technology.

(a) Issues addressed under project consultancy and implementation include:

• Organization and methods
• Analysis and programme
• Personnel training

(b) In terms of equipment operation and maintenance, structure development will make for:

• Increase in the number of installed equipment and their maintenance
• Increased production
• An assistance system

Administrative structures should develop alongside technical structures in order to have a good administration of the entire organization.

Operational development

Reorganization should make possible the implementation of the plan at the national level which involves the standardization of management tools, harmonization of installed equipment and coordination of information technology training.

Information output will be organized around the "General Centres" processing applications for several administrations and companies. Working sessions should be organized between OCI and the users where sectoral technical issues will be addressed. There is also need for information technology correspondent among the users whose task will include:

• Evaluating information processing requirements
• Designing the required information systems with computers
• Providing the necessary information for the processing of data

Implementation of the information plan

OCI implemented the applications under the plan for most of the administration's computerization projects. This resulted in the establishment of several computer centres for:

• Customs
• Budget
• Treasury
• Taxes
• Planning
• Civil service
• Education

All the centers were provided with the same equipment, namely the H.P. 3000 for compatibility reasons. These equipment were supplied and owned by OCI.

Several public and private companies benefitted from the OCI computerization programme. They include Hydro-Congo, SNE, ARC, OFNACOM.

But this was not enough though, as a whole category of companies were voluntarily or involuntarily left out. These are the SME and SMI which OCI did not reckon with in its daily operation. Other areas voluntarily overlooked by OCI for lack of adequate manpower include office automation and information technology training. Thus, users are at the receiving end of information technology without knowing that it could be used in other areas.

The information plan implementation rate was estimated at 55 per cent. OCI should be given the merit for disseminating information technology in Congo even if the rate falls short of the plan's objectives.

2.2.3.5 Monitoring the national plan implementation

Since there was no institution handling information policy in Congo it was suggested in the information plan to put in place an information plan monitoring mechanism, CEPI, otherwise known as the Information Evaluation and Planning Unit.

2.2.3.6 CEPI

CEPI's role was to closely and continuously monitor all aspects of information technology development in Congo. It was also responsible for the technical monitoring of the plan.

Monitoring tools

The permanent monitoring of an information plan entails carrying out a set of periodic assignments with specific methods and techniques requiring the use of indicators which will enable CEPI to:

• Have a set of qualitative and quantitative data comparable to those in the plan
• Examine information development in Congo
• Suggest amendments to the plan where recommended measures can not be applied

CEPI should therefore have basic and monitoring logistics required to put in place and develop its guidelines.

Basic logistics

Basic logistics include:

• A supply system (contact network and questionnaires)
• Data bank (information collection)
• A set of models and mechanisms (for the processing of information and setting of objectives)
• Inter-office questionnaires (for formalizing OCI's position). This will enable CEPI to:
• organize its data bank on the basis of the analysis carried out
• complete the bank after collecting data from questionnaires
• formalize the set of models and mechanisms according to the plan's objectives.

Monitoring logistics

It is meant to update information collected through basic logistics and involves:

• A supply system (network and external questionnaire shorter than the basic logistics questionnaire)
• Inter-office questionnaires (shorter than the previous ones)

Information thus gathered will be distributed into the basic logistics data bank files for analysis on the "dash board."

The "Dash board"

The "dash board" provides the actual stage of development in terms of the achievement of objectives and possible action to bridge gaps if any, by formulating new objectives.

The indicators

They are no more no less than measuring instruments and should therefore be simple, precise, reliable, meaningful, easy to understand and apply. Examples of selected indicators are:

2.2.4 The balance sheet

From the foregoing, it could be said that the information policy in Congo has presented a mixed picture. As one of the first African countries to use information technology, the level of computerization in Congo remains very low. The finding of the information technology study on Congo is that it remains marginalized quantitatively and qualitatively in terms of dissemination to the sectors in spite of the government effort to promote information technology.

Quantitative gaps

Congo's estimated information potential is still below the average. Information equipment account for only 0.4 per cent of the GDP whereas the average in most of the developed countries is over 3 per cent.

Qualitative gaps

There was also a low quality of information applications. The operational level is on average similar to what obtains in other developing countries. It would have been difficult to have an ultra-modern information technology such as intra-active and remote processing systems with the available limited resources and the weak telecommunications network.

There was however, some advanced applications such as the computerization of the government budget which also served as a reference for future applications in the administrative sector.

Some companies like CNSS, ATC and SNE have taken their information technology development seriously.

However, information technology has neither had a significant impact on the smooth running of the national economy nor improved the national information system for the following three reasons:

1. The low information dissemination rate does not bode well for communication between the computerized systems in terms of data preparation and transmission;

2. Virtually all current computerized systems were designed solely for users without taking due account of economic management information requirements;

3. The lack of an information policy think tank and follow up mechanism in Congo.

Three areas of concern are addressed under the current information technology situation:

• Information structure
• Human resources
• Designing a development plan for the information sector

In terms of structure

It was noted that OCI was virtually the only institution to address information issues in terms of design, implementation and operation. Although this was quite understable and realistic at the beginning, there are currently two limiting factors:

• End users are now more aware of information technology
• Information advances in information technology have made it more user-friendly, more accessible especially with the emergence of personal computers

The current structures as they stand constitute a disincentive and an impediment to information technology development of the sectors.

Human resources

Personnel training was also neglected while information technology in Congo heavily depended on foreign assistance. However, a few Congolese citizens were trained at the IAI as analysts/programmers and engineers, but the number was insufficient. Information technology was not extended across the national territory to other sectors such as education; it was limited to the initiated.

Designing a development plan

Only one information plan has been designed hitherto and dates back to 1981. Ever since, developments have been haphazard with no supervisory body and leaving the door open for a proliferation of merchants of computers of all sorts and more or less credible computer service companies.

2.3. Cameroon

2.3.1 Information technology policy instruments in Cameroon

There are decrees and edicts governing information policy in Cameroon from 1966-1993.

Decree No. 66-DF-107 of 11-03-66 merging the data processing department of the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Planning with the office of the President of the Republic and establishing a commission for the study and coordination of data processing and accounting equipment.

Objectives

1. To implement data processing for all governments administrative offices;

2. To initiate a common policy for the use of accounting machines, punch cards and electronic equipment for the benefit of the public sector, parastatals and the society at large;

3. To update data processing activities and available equipment;

4. To set expenditure limits on work done communally or individually

5. All projects related to mechanization, new equipment installation, extension or modernization of existing workshops shall be reviewed by the Data Processing Department.

Decree No. 67-DF-262 of 12-06-67 governing the organization and operation of the Central Data Processing Department.

Objectives: Reorganization of the Central Data Processing Department

Decree No.69-DF-365 of 13-09-69 on the amendment to the Decree No.66-DF-107 of 11-03-66 establishing a Study and Coordinating Commission for Data Processing and Accounting Equipment.

Objectives: Establishment of a Study and Coordinating Commission for Data Processing and Accounting Equipment, and mechanization projects requiring direct or indirect budget allocations from the Government.

Decree No. 64-CAB-PR of 13-05-70 establishing the Sub-Commission responsible for the monitoring of the mechanization of public institutions and parastatals.

Objectives: To monitor, direct and coordinate the mechanization of the following government institutions and parastatals:

• Cocoa, Robusta and Arabica coffee Marketing Board
• Telecommunications accounting system
• Federal savings scheme
• National provident fund
• Douala Port
• Customs department

Decree No. 76-258 of 02-07-76 establishing the Federal department of Information Technology (DCIT).

Objectives: To promote the development of information technology and modern management methods in the public sector, parastatals, mixed economy companies and possibly in the private sector and with other countries abroad.

To implement at the technical level the government information policy initiated by the national information technology commission.

Decree No. 84-1104 of 25-08-84 establishing the organization of the Ministry of Information Technology and public contracts.

Remarks

• DCIT became DIT with the same objectives as under the Decree of 02-07-76
• The information policy instruments under the Office of the President of the Republic since 1966 henceforth moved to a Ministerial department.

Decree No. 86-935 of 28-07-86 establishing the Organization of the Ministry of Information Technology and Public Contracts.

Remarks

• The sub-departments are replaced by departments
• Human resources are quantified

Decree No. 88-1087 of 12-08-88 establishing, within the Ministry of Higher Education, Information Technology and Scientific Research (MESIRES), the National Centre for Information Technology (CENADI) which replaced DIT.

Remarks

The National Information Policy would henceforth be directed and managed by an organizational structure (CENADI) comprising:

• A ten-member governing council
• A department comprising a secretariat and five sections
• External services including the Douala, Garoua and Bafoussam Computer Centres.

Decree No. 93-133 of 10-05-93 amending some provisions under Decree No. 88-1087 of 12-08-88 on the establishment and organization of the National Centre for Information Technology Development (CENADI)

Remarks

The National Centre for Information Technology Development (CENADI) was merged with the Ministry of Finance.

The study of these decrees, ordinances, achievements and activities carried out shows that there are three periods covered by the information technology development in Cameroon:

1966-1976

1976-1989

1989-1993

2.3.1.1 From 1966-1976

During this period, the Central Data Processing Department and the Study and Coordinating Commission for Data Processing and Accounting Equipment was set up.

The Central Data Processing Department was entrusted with the mechanization of customs liquidation procedures, duties and taxes recovery and the initiation of a common policy for the use of machines, with the exception of PAGODE incepted in 1971 and whose main task was to speed up customs operation procedures and to simplify administrative procedures.

The Commission was to ensure that the texts were applied and its decisions translated into action.

Within the same period, there was a near chronic shortage of human resources and Cameroon had to bring in many expatriates.

In terms of training, Cameroon signed on 29 January 1971 in the Chadian capital a convention between Cameroon and other countries of the subregion with a view to establishing the African Information Institute (IAI) in Libreville. The first scholarships were awarded to young Cameroonians for information technology studies abroad.

All the decisions pertaining to information technology were handled at the highest level of the Government (Office of the President of the Republic).

2.3.1.2 From 1976-1989

During this period the Federal Department of Information Technology (DCIT) and the National Commission for Information Technology were established with three applications: PAGODE, ANTILOPE and TRINITE.

Some assignments initially given to the study and coordinating commission for data processing and accounting equipment were henceforth given to DCIT. This gradually reduced and eventually put a stop to the former's activities.

The National Information Technology Commission responsible for the definition and orientation of information policy only existed on paper.

The emergence of personal computers, resulting directly in reduced equipment costs and a relatively good economic health for Cameroon, prompted the proliferation of information equipment and services in the public sectors and parastatals without prior approval from DCIT as stipulated in the texts.

In 1978, giving a special status to information technologists and setting up department of information technology offering better chances of promotion, encouraged a greater number of Cameroonians trained abroad to come back home.

In 1984, a Ministerial Department for Information Technology was established.

In July 1984, automated customs and foreign trade management and operation procedures, PAGODE, were initiated at Douala Port.

In February 1986, a data transmission network (CAMPAC) was set up to serve national and foreign users.

July 1986: Entry into force of the National Application for Government Information Processing and Personnel Logistics (ANTILOPE).

July 1988: Entry into force of the Computerized Tax and Duties Processing (TRINITE).

The implementation of CAMPAC and PAGODE was going to speed up the computerization of private and government clearing agencies such as SOCOPAO, MORY, SOAEM, CAMATRANS, TRANSCAP, SAMOA, CAMSHIP and CAMAIR.

Other parastatals like SONEL, SOTUC, CNPS, National Printing Press joined the computerization race.

The following observations emerged from the review of the period under consideration:

• Decisions on information technology were centralized in the ministries
• Structures were unstable (DCIT, DIT and CENADI)
• Computerization focused rather on resources than on requirements
• An impressive information equipment fleet was assembled (micro: 2856; Mini: 150, big equipment: 31).
• Huge human resources were mobilized (Cameroonian engineers: 278; Cameroonian analysts: 121; maintenance technicians: 27.

Conclusion

OCI was and still remains today the information policy instruments in Congo. But that role is increasingly called into question for not achieving the objectives laid down in the information plan and taking undue advantage of its privileged position to the deteriment of the entire nation whose level of computerization remains the lowest in Africa.

Given the relevance of information technology in our organization, there is an urgent need to redefine a reference framework tailored to the administrative and economic development requirements of the country.

The second part of the study will focus on the opinions of the main actors involved in the information policy namely, the government offices, parastatals, private companies, computer manufactures, service companies such as OCI and SINORG. Various opinions will be gathered through discussions.

At the end of this exercise, proposals will be made for the putting in place a of national orientation structure.

2.3.1.3 From 1989-1993

Unlike the previous period with speedy computerization in Cameroon, there was a general drop in information activities from 1989-1993.

In 1990, the Government adopted the National Information Plan (NIP) in three stages:

• Study and appraisal of the national information landscape
• Preparation of the main guidelines for information technology development in Cameroon
• Recommendations and proposals for short-, medium- and long-term activities geared towards a more effective use of technologies

In reviewing the National Information Plan, the Cameroonian Government took stock of its entire information policy and pin pointed shortcomings in the way of the laid down objectives. Other steps were taken for national growth in information technology.

Some quantitative data under this plan was subsequently updated.

Over the period 1989-1994, the acquisition rate of micro-computers was estimated 13 per cent per annum, mini-computers at 4.5 per cent and big computers at 5.2 per cent. The computer fleet projection for 1994 thus stood:

Micro-computers: 4781 units

Mini-computers: 179 units

Big computers: 38 units

The growth in number of Cameroonian information technology staff over the period 1989-1994 stood at:

Engineers: 7.2 per cent increase per annum with 474 engineers projected for 1994.

Analysts: 11.3 per cent increase per annum with 1911 analysts projected for 1994.

Maintenance technicians: 12.6 per cent increase per annum with 47 technicians projected for 1994.

In 1993, a presidential decree merged CENADI with the Ministry of Finance.

2.3.1.4 Remarks

There are some shortcomings in the information policy conducted by the Cameroonian Government from 1966-1993 of which the most significant are:

The lack of national training infrastructures and supervision of Cameroonian students abroad.

The haphazard acquisition of information resources and the relative inactivity of the studies and coordinating commission for data processing and accounting equipment.

The lack of legislation on the information sector and the protection of intellectual property, the handling of information offenses and registration of information technology suppliers.

The lack of laws on individual freedom in the use of information files in some sectors.

Putting information technology under the central government authority, which does not bode well for information technology issues requiring quick decision taking.

2.3.2 Suppliers of information technology in Cameroon

There are four categories of information technology suppliers in Cameroon:

• Information technology industry
• Manufacturers
• Distributors and representatives
• Service Companies and Information Technology Consultancy (SSCI)

2.3.2.1 Information technology industry

This generally covers equipment, services and supplies.

The equipment industry is currently only at its early stage. They are INTELAR and HI-TECH COMPUTER.

Up to 1990, INTELAR assembled the (IBM PC-XT compatible) RAMSES micro-processors. In the first half of 1989, INTELAR started marketing the 80386 compatible micro-processors.

In 1990, INTELAR stopped its technical activities throughout Cameroon and another company, HI-TECH COMPUTER, took over the following activities:

• The manufacturing of SIMUSI Computers (80286, 80386, 80486 ISA, EISA series and multi-processor systems).
• Organizing information technology in cooperation with the SSCI's in Cameroon.
• Preparation and installation of architectural network
• Remote connectivity
• Maintenance of electronic and information equipment
• Hardware and software training programmes
• Consultancy and technical assistance
• Research in artificial intelligence and applications development (still at its early stage with a current objective implementation rate of only 2 per cent)

At the industrial level, HI-TECH COMPUTER maintains a good relationship with various manufacturing and supplying companies of raw materials and semi-finished products like TVM (Taiwan Video and Monitor Corp.), American Megatrends Inc., Datatronics, D-Link Corporation, Micronics, Microscience International, Mylex and Telmat Information Technology.

HI-TECH COMPUTER'S permanent technical team comprises five top level engineers and eight technicians.

However, the softwares are not produced in Cameroon and so all users depend on information technology suppliers.

Service industry is not well developed but they provide training, consultancy and the development of current management applications.

Virtually all the supplies needed for computer use were imported.

Reasons why the information technology industry was not developed in Cameroon

• Under-estimation and under-utilization of local expertise and preference in awarding contracts to foreign companies
• Lack of computer importation regulation
• Lack of electronic and information culture
• Poor use of information resources
• Inadequate financial resources for the development of information, electronic and telecommunication industries and services
• Difficult access to powerful development tools where they exist
• Shortage of staff and institutions likely to promote the sector's activities, take decisions in favour of a rapidly developing industry

2.3.2.2 Manufacturers

Most of the world famous manufacturers have branches in Cameroon, selling and maintaining equipment imported into the country. These big companies include IBM, BULL, NCR, UNISYS and offer a wide range of equipment.

However, from 1987-1990 a young Cameroonian manufacturing company called INTELAR locally assembled IBM compatible micro-computers. Its activities have been taken over by HI-TECH COMPUTE whose entire staff members are Cameroonians.

There has been an extensive sale of micro-processors in Cameroon over the years, not only to the big national companies but also to the SME/SMI.

The following table drawn from the National Information Plan given an estimate of the information equipment fleet for 1989:

From 1985-1989, a supplier's average turnover was about FCFA 1.5 billion with a sharp increase over the periods 1985-1986 and 1986-1987. It dropped subsequently by 68 per cent and currently by 80 per cent.

In terms of human resources, Cameroonians account for 84 per cent of the manufacturing technical staff and all analysts are Cameroonians. There was a significant increase in the number of analysts between 1985 and 1993.

The following table drawn from the National Information Plan illustrates the manufacturing staff trend between 1985 and 1993.

Of the total number of information technologists practising in the country in 1989, manufacturing technologists accounted for about 10 per cent, analysts about 0.9 per cent and maintenance technicians 100 per cent, which translated into about 20 per cent for all three categories.
The number of analysts employed by the manu

facturers is very low since they are not involved software applications development.
2.3.2.3 Distributors and representatives
This category of suppliers are not well represented in Cameroon; they are mainly retailers of micro-computers. Since some manufacturers like HEWLETT-PACKARD, APPLE, GOUPIL are not on the market, their products are marketed by representatives. Others like IBM and BULL which are on the market have licensed distributors.
There are few information technology personnel for distributors and representatives and most of them are Cameroonians.
The following table drawn from the National Information Plan illustrates information technology staff for distributors and representatives from 1985-1989.

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It will be noted that distributors and representatives are very unstable . Indeed, they stop working only a few months after they are set up. This causes serious problems for information technology users especially with regard to equipment maintenance.
2.3.2.4 Service, consultancy information companies (SSCI)
In the 1970s, accounting offices with computers for processing served as SSCIs.
However, the first real SSCIs were gradually established in Cameroon as from 1976 and were classified on the basis of their equity composition as follows:

• Companies with 100 per cent Cameroonian capital accounted for 34 per cent of all SSCIs
• Companies with foreign capital accounted for 22 per cent of the SSCIs
• Mixed companies accounted for 44 per cent of the SSCIs

Foreign-capital company generally used labour from their countries of origin.
Companies with mixed capital or 100 per cent Cameroonian initially had limited access to the market not only because of their lack of solidarity, but also owing to shortage of skilled Cameroonian information technologists. Furthermore, some markets were virtually closed to them because of their small size.
The SSCIs in Cameroon do not develop equipment such as software systems (operating and compiling systems). Generally, they do not have any product policy; they only go by the market forces. Their main activities are the development of customized softwares, sale of imported equipment, training and consultancy. It should be noted however that most of the SSCIs specialized in training and consultancy award certificates not recognized by the relevant authorities.

There has been a general downsizing of staff with more cuts in the ranks of expatriate engineers and analysts than Cameroonians.

The following table drawn from the National Information Plan clearly illustrates the SSCI information personnel trends from 1985-1989.

This cutbacks are due mainly to a reduction in activities. Indeed, the current difficult economic situation has compelled some SSCIs to stop their activities altogether and others to significantly reduce their staff strength.

2.3.2.5 Remarks

In carrying out their activities, information technology suppliers encounter the following major problems:

Suppliers experience long delays with government offices in processing their documents and settling their bills. They deplore the lack of specific regulations concerning the information technology sector, high customs duties on equipment which significantly reduces sales especially of micro-computers.

• With regard to customers, suppliers complain about payment problems and a poor maintenance culture. They believe that their clients lack human resources or do not use effectively those that are available. According to the suppliers, shortage of skilled and experienced staff is due to the fact that staff training has been somewhat neglected.
• Suppliers further believe that their customers are not adequately aware of information technology safety. That is why measures contained in the information technology reports were not complied with, thereby making information technology facilities very vulnerable.
• For their part, most information technology users are yet to be fully aware of the importance of insurance.
• There is no standardized after sales service between suppliers and users (spare parts, office supplies, maintenance programme, etc.).
• There is no suppliers' association to determine qualities and minimum requirements for suppliers. Such associations, if they exist, should regulate the suppliers' activities.

2.3.3 Users of information technology in Cameroon

The economic, social and cultural development process in Cameroon will be influenced by the extent to which information technology is used in areas such as:

• The Government and all the ministerial departments and local communities.
• The productive sectors including agriculture, livestock, industry and the SME/SMI.
• The service sectors including trade, transport, financial and insurance institutions.
• The social sectors including education and health.

2.3.3.1 Administration

The administration can be considered as a supplier of services to the citizens and a pilot of the economy.

As a supplier of services to the citizens, it should manage its resource such as personnel, finance and budget.

As a pilot of the economy, it should be in control of information from various sectors so as to make reliable and effective decision; decision making and communication play a key role.

In terms of State personnel and finance management, three big projects were implemented, namely:

• The PAGODE Project (automated customs and foreign trade operations management procedures), which is run on the IBM 4361 system and uses over 120 CAMPAC network terminals and 18 special connections. It also served the customs, airport and some clearing agencies (see diagram below). These connections form a remote processing network around the PAGODE computer centre, providing users with the following managerial services:
• Customs declarations
• Manifests
• Licenses
• Customs tariffs
• Settlements

The ANTILOPE (State personnel information and logistics processing application), which is run on the P13 Model of the IBM 4381 system and uses 25 CAMPAC network special terminals out of the 29 in operation in and around Yaounde (see diagram below).

The connection with the ministry of Public Service is out of order due to faulty terminals although rents are still paid. Services currently provided include:

• Individual file management with regard to State employees' transfer,
• Updating employees payroll,
• Payroll calculations involving:
• Producing treasury bills and credit advise
• Producing payroll documents and statements
• Collective management and production of various statistics at the request of users,
• Managing the civil service examination with an independent unit responsible for candidates, test scoring and publishing of results,

• Automatic printout of the lists of civil servants due for retirement,

• Pension management,

The following improvement has been made on State personnel payroll management:

• Further responsibility given to employees handling the budgets of those ministerial departments connected to the system through the distribution of information resources and the establishment of a common data base on State personnel
• Controlling the personnel growth rate:
• 3.7 per cent in 1986/1987
• 2.1 per cent in 1987/1988 and 1.5 per cent thereafter.
• The retrenchment of 5200 employees has made it possible to save FCFA 5.7 billion per annum
• Further efforts at controlling allowances such as housing, vehicle, etc have resulted in savings of about FCFA 500 million per month
• On the whole, a sum of FCFA 1.3 billion has been saved per month through these measures
• The TRINITE Project (computerized state tax and duty processing), operated in Yaounde on model P23 of the IBM 4381 system using four special CAMPAC connections with over 190 monitors and 170 printers (see diagram below).

The table below drawn from the National Information Plan illustrates information technology employees in government services in the past eight years.

Some local urban communities are using or plan to use very soon information technology. Thus, the Dualla urban communities is currently being automated with micro-computers.

2.3.3.2 The productive sectors

Information technology must be used to modernize the productive centre, to improve the quality of manufactured goods and making them more competitive. It should also help boost agriculture and livestock.

Presently in Cameroon, organizations in the productive sectors use information technology for their administrative, financial and budget management.

In terms of agriculture, an agro-pastoral data bank model with technical, economic, statistical and geographical information on about 20 crops, 10 animals specious, fishery and forestry was exhibited in Maroua in 1988 during the agricultural show.

This has prompted the Ministry of Agriculture to conduct a survey on the national agricultural potential.

2.3.3.3 The social sectors

The social sectors include health and education.

2.3.3.3.1 The health sector

Information technology could play a key role in hospital management and control of the big tropical diseases which claim human lives in Cameroon.

Although most health institutions are equipped with computers, they do not have enough qualified information technology staff. None of the big information applications like the medical documentation system, patients' file, medical decision aid, and hospital information system has hitherto been implemented in Cameroon.

However, a system called health management information system is currently being initiated by the Ministry of Health. It is a medical data collection system. Each health establishment is required to complete its activity statistics forms and forward them to the central office in Yaounde. Such statistics should be computerized in order to improve planning and decision making.

A study was commissioned for the establishment of an information system for the administrative, financial and budget management of a teaching hospital. It also included the management of some health institutions' specific activities such as medical files, vaccinations, blood bank, patients' admission, laboratory tests, follow up, equipment and pharmacy.

2.3.3.3.2. The educational sector

Some institutions have been computerized since late 1970s. They include various research institutes and the universities of Yaounde where teachers and administrative staff payroll, and other curricula activities have been computerized. A well equipped PAO Unit with qualified staff is now operational at the computer centre of the universities of Yaounde. Electronic mail is also available at the centre with an X25 line connected to IBM RISC/6000. A small local network is also being built around the RISC/6000.

Remarks

In terms of human resources, the number of Cameroonian engineers has remained practically constant while the number of expatriate engineers slightly increased between 1985-1993. There has been an overall increase in the number of analysts.

With regard to information technology, it has been observed that the micro-computer is the most utilized.

There are two systems: IBM 4331 and IBM RS/6000 at the computer center of the universities of Yaounde.

Comparing the number of sites (a total of 9) to the number of information technology employees, it was observed that one site out of two does not have an Information engineer and that on average, there is an analyst per site. Moreover, there is one engineer to two analysts. This means that the education sector is as under-computerized as the health sector.

2.3.3.4 Service Sectors

The service sectors include Banks, Transport, Insurance and Hotels.

Information Technology should facilitate the development of these sectors by providing the policy makers with indicators showing trends in the sectors and providing an appropriate control of the national economy. Furthermore, the ultimate goal of Information application should be to offer a better service to users.

2.3.3.4.1 The Banking Sector

Information Technology was introduced into the Banking system in the early 80's, but computerization is yet to meet actual requirements.

Apart from some banks which continues to computerize on a step by step basis without a specific policy, several other banks use annual information development plans designed either internally or with the assistance of foreign consultants or borrowed from the blueprints of parent companies.

Generally, information technology is only used for the processing of current management information.

There are about 200 banking agencies in Cameroon, 30% of which are more or less computerized. On average, 2 information technologists share one working station and generally 20 banking employees use the same consultation terminal.

On the whole, inter-agency and inter-bank exchanges are not yet computerized. Similarly, there are relatively long delays in the clearing operations.

Equipment installed in the banks include:

• Mini-computers: 16 units
• Micro-computers: 64 units

These systems are used both as independent stations and connected stations. There are, however, no local networks.

With regard to softwares, it was observed that:

• Basic softwares were used mainly for traditional functions such as files and business management
• Database management and network systems were practically not used
• Development aid tools were not used
• Programming is usually done in COBOL and GAP II languages
• For most banks, applications are developed by the parent companies and in some cases, foreign companies are used. Banking softwares are also used but generally not updated. They are used for the following functions:

• Management of clients' account
• Portfolio management
• Payroll

• Accounting

• Processing is more often done in batches. However, some institutions such as BICIC and Meridian-BIAO prefer over-the-counter approach.

In terms of human resources less than 4% of the banking employees use information technology. Moreover, information technology personnel account for only 5% of the total banking staff.

With regard to information technology personnel, 76.7% work in operations and 2.3.7% are staff members, 2.2% of whom are foreigners.

2.3.3.4.2 The Insurance Sector

All Cameroonian insurance companies are computerized at least at the Douala headquarters, often with very powerful systems such as SNAC-AGF, the IBM 9370 being one of the most powerful machines in Cameroon. But they often use inappropriate softwares. Thus, SNAC uses the AGF France software which only operates on the IBM 370 series with a turnover a thousand times lower.

CCAR-UAP has started using an IBM 36 for a brokering program from a Jamaican agency. There were so many problems with the system that accounting was simply incomprehensible, concerning especially receipts for the attention of the auditor. The IBM has ever since been replaced with an AS 400 and the situation has slightly improved.

ACC (Faugeres & Jutheaux) has a well computerized accounting system but not yet extended to contract management.

TAA has an AS 400 but is facing enormous problems using it for lack of suitable software.

CNA has had Digital since 1987. It was at that time the only machine that could operate on UNIX. There was a microVax II, with 22 monitors in Douala, and another less powerful one in Yaounde. COBOL softwares used were developed purchased, but, they were not completely satisfactory and a team of Cameroonian analyst-programmers are changing the system to Informix in cooperation with the program user personnel.

r>The only company which seems to have adequately solved the software problem is Chanas & Private which changed from IBM 36 to AS 400 in 1990. The computerization carried out by a local group in COBOL revolutionized deep seated habits. Free from routine work, the staff then could think of new services to offer to customers. Thus, in cooperation with information technology personnel, they initiated a sound and successful health insurance scheme, which attracted more than 25,000 subscribers early 1992. But it was rather an expensive venture: 15% of the revenues was allocated to information technology; it was an insurance company with several constraints and expenses although its turnover does not exceed that of an average French agency.
2.3.3.4.3 Transport Sector
Within this sector there are activities directly carried out by the Ministry of Transport activities and those undertaken by parstatals under the Ministry of Transport.
The Ministry of Transport provide services such as vehicle registration and issuance of driver's and vehicle licence for each province. In their routine work they encounter difficulties in operation management and in providing statistics on cars available in Cameroon.
Parastatals started computerization in early 70's. The first applications developed were the traditional types mainly for administrative financial and budget management and did not serve the purpose of the Cameroonian Railway Corporation (RNCF) or the Cameroon Airlines (CAMAIR).
Some companies subsequently embarked on the renewal of their equipment by acquiring more performing systems through which specific data base applications were developed.
Compared to other sectors, transport especially run by parastatals seem to have attained a substantial level of computerization.
Cameroonians form the majority Information Technology personnel. The number of Engineers and analysts has remained practically constant and the table below from the National Information Plan illustrates staff trend over the period 1985-1989.

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Comparing the number of sites (about 9 of them to the number of information technology employees, it will be noted that there are 2 engineers and 3 analysts per site, and 1 engineer to 2 analysts. These ratios shows the inadequacy of human resources in comparision to the usuall standards.
2.3.3.4.4 Post and Telecommunication Sector
Before 1989, the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications (MIN & T) were using applications developed and used at the DIT, now known as CENADI. Subsequently, the Ministry established its own information unit and updated its applications which include:

• Invoicing and Processing of Telecommunication bills
• Customers' Savings schemes account management
• Customers' Postal cheques account management
• Staff payroll management

Those applications were updated at the Ministry of Post and Telecommunicatons with a set of computers, including:

• 1 BULL DPS 7000
• 6 IBM RISC/6000
• 3 UNSYS U 6000
• 2 NCR Mini- Computers
• 3 IBM AS/400
• A set of IBM, BULL and TOSHIBA micro-computers with appropriate training for the employees and officers of the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications.

r>Subsequently, the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications conducted a study which resulted in the setting up of a private data transmission network in the Ministry. This serves as a backup to the Ministry's equipment and applications.
A voice -and- data digital private automatic branch exchange was also set up.
There are currently several computerization projects on:

• Post offices
• Postal sorting centers
• Preparation and publishing of telecommunication subscribers' directory
• Express mail service (EMS)
• Management of Telecommunications Establishments, such as ACTEL, CCL and commuting Center

Remarks

r>1. Purchasing equipment from different manufacturers resulted in excessive maintenance costs.

r>2. According to the officers in charge of the MINP & T applications, several manufacturers were deliberately used in order to avoid being held to ransom by a single manufacturer.

r>3. Despite a pressing need for the training of information technology technicians and employees as pointed out by the policy makers during training seminars CTI, AFCA, etc., the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications over a long period lacked highly qualified experts such as system engineers, analysts and maintenance technicians.
4. There is at MINP & T a core of telecommunications engineers familiar with information technology who have been able to carry out operational applications in terms of postal and sorting offices management.
2.3.3.4.5 The Hotel Sector
Despite the existence of many luxury and medium hotels in Cameroon, information technology use is only at the early stage.

r>Before information technology is used in the hotel sector, the uniform systems of accounts should be tailored to the Cameroonian general accounting plan.
Direct costing (Semi-analytical) accounting system for hotel management could be applied to cover the Sequence:

• Payroll
• Creditors
• Integrated semi-analytical accounting
• Food and Drinks
• Fixed assets management

The above sequence is only meaningful with large scale operations. Any other approach would hamper the use of information technology in the hotel sector.
2.3.3.5. Remarks

r>On the whole, information technology use has become necessary for all ministerial departments as most of them have micro- computers but without qualified information personnel.
Naturally, requirements vary from one ministry to the other but the central issue remains information management, especially data transmission still being done on magnetic tapes or in form of written documents.
Comparing the number of sites (about 25) to the human resources at the disposal of the administration, there are two engineers and one analyst per site; two engineers to one analyst in Cameroon.

These ratios show that human resources are inadequate. Indeed, the technical team required for applications development comprises generally 5 analysts to one engineer. Moreover, for an average site there should be permanent team of three software experts.

Generally, funds allocated to information technology are not sufficient, especially for information safety equipment and hardware and software maintenance equipment.

Incompatibility of equipment purchased from different manufacturers is often the root of many problems.

Suppliers do not always comply with delivery deadlines which often results in additional costs and disruptions in services.

CENADI as an information pilot institution within the Cameroonian government is another source of problems in terms of:

• Repairs expenses
• Misunderstanding between CENADI technicians and the end users of its outputs
• Delays in sending out diskettes and printouts
• Staff at the disposal of the Ministerial departments are not under their direct authority, hence, authority crisis
• Technical and terminological problems often arise as most users lack basic training in information technology
• Ministry employees invited to information technology training feel it is a waste of time as they do not derive any financial or professional benefit from such exercise. Hence, they often completely lose interest in information technology.

The ANTILOPE project fell short of expectation as Government continues to pay ghost workers and double salaries, which does not encourage other ministerial departments to computerize.

Decision making and communication information technology is practically nonexistent in the Cameroonian Administration.

2. Although significant progress has been made in terms of information equipment in the educational sector, especially in the universities, shortage of skilled information technologists and maintenance technicians remains an impediment information technology in this sector.

With the exception of the Universities of Yaounde, there has been no study on how to use information technology in finance, scholarships, school supplies, statistics and educational research for a rational management of staff and educational infrastructures.

3. Some companies like the clearing agencies, the Cameroon National Shippers Council (CNCC) and the Cameroon Ports Authority need to frequently exchange data between them and the customs Department. This has been done hitherto only through written correspondence owing to the incompatibility of their information equipment.

The Ministry of Transport should be sensitized to the relevance of information technology use in facilitating the collection and publication of statistical information on vehicle registrations, driving and vehicle licenses.

2.3.4 Back-up instruments to information technology

Most sectors of the Cameroonian economy are currently using information technology to melt the ever increasing needs of policy makers and end users. Applications such as PAGODE, ANTILOPE and CAMPAC are currently used by government offices.

It is not out of place to say that information technology has now reached a strategic stage where its serious dysfunction could paralyse those sectors which depend on its services. This could be caused where there is no safety or maintenance.

2.3.4.1 The Safety of Information Technology application

The basic objectives for the safety and smooth mining of information technology applications are:

• availability
• confidentiality of data and output
• reliability and integrity of data and findings

a) Availability

The availability of a system or information technology application depends on several factors, physical and logistic. Information system requirements vary according to the types of processing of which the following are the two most important:

• remote processing which is conversational, transactional and interactive.
• Processing by batch, applicable on the basis of an acceptable maximum deadline for delivery as against the initial scheduled dates

b) Confidentiality

Confidentiality relates to both processing and data.

Processing is generally categorized as:

• very sensitive
• sensitive
• ordinary

Data is categorized as

• very secret
• secret
• confidential
• private
• public

A high level of confidentiality is generally expected from the CENADI professionals.

However, CENADI does not apply the above-mentioned classifications but applications such as the ANTILOPE payroll are intuitively considered sensitive by all CENADI employees.

c) Reliability

The reliability of most of CENADI's output and processing is not contested by users.

2.3.4.1.1 Likely threats to information applications

Threats to information applications, include vandalism, sabotage, fire outbreak, floods, equipment breakdown, laxity, errors, omission, heat, break in stock supplies, etc.

Protection against such threats may prove difficult and expensive. However, conventional wisdom dictates that attention be focused on only one of the risks against which preventive measures must be taken in order to ensure the smooth running of the information systems.

The occurrence of these threats and their attendant damages can not be easily projected but they could be categorized in terms of:

• physical security
• logical security
• management procedures

2.3.4.1.2 Physical Security

Items that need to be protected include :

• premises
• information equipment
• electrical appliances and air conditions

On the whole, protective measures involve:

• the organization of the premises
• physical protection
• access control
• alarm devices
• operational procedures
• safeguards

2.3.4.1.2.1 Premises

It should be noted that apart form the Douala Computer Centre and that of universities of Yaounde, nearly all other computer centres in Cameroon are housed in buildings not designed for information technology. Moreover, most of them are not guarded. The CENADI computer centre in Yaounde is not adequately guarded by the law enforcement agents. In terms of physical protection, the commonest threats are fire, floods, and dust.

With the exception of the above-mentioned centres, practically all other sites in Cameroon are vulnerable. For instance, the CENADI facilities have been flooded several times; there have been three cases of fire outbreak which were fortunately brought under control; there are many burglary cases reported at the premises of the Department of Applied information technology to research and education (DIRE).

2.3.4.2.2 Technical equipment

There are three categories of technical equipment.

• Information equipment
• Air conditioners
• Electricity supply

a) Information Equipment

Information equipment include the central units, discs, magnetic tapes and cartridges, printers, communication controllers, data transmission network components (lines, terminals, and their controllers) etc.

With regard to big CENADI applications like PAGODE, ANTILOPE and TRINITE, there are no capacity margins.

It should be noted that the light equipment operated by users are kept in somewhat deplorable conditions.

b) Air Conditioning

Apart form those facilities in hot areas where the room temperature is often unbearable for both human beings and machines as the universities of Yaounde, most compute centres in Cameroon are not adequately air conditioned.

c) Electricity Supply

The unstable public power supply calls for a close attention to an alternative regular source of electricity in keeping with the technical specification of the installed information equipment.

A standard installation comprises and average-capacity battery-operated ondulator and a reasonalbly powerful stand-by generator.

2.3.4.1.2.3 Magnetic tapes

These are used to save programmes and data required for continued regular processing. The tapes can be easily duplicated but need to be kept in safe places, preferably different from the processing sites. This is not what currently obtains in CENADI and in most other computer centres in Cameroon due to the policy makers' ignorance or lack of office space.

2.3.4.1.3Logical Safety

The main factors affecting safety are:

• Control of access to programmes and data
• Classification of applications sensitivity and data reliability
• Effective partition between development and operation environments
• Uniform development and operation procedures
• Systematic safeguard measures
• Backup procedures against accidents and periodic checking for smooth running at least twice a year
• Automated operation

2.3.4.1.3.1 Control of Logical Access

All remote processing systems should have reliable logical access control devices.

Technical devices at CENADI such as PAGODE, ANTILOPE, TRINITE are not adequate. There should be a more efficient password management on the ANTILOPE and TRINITE systems with period changes.

In terms of logical access, the end users also have a key role to play by jealously keeping their password and locking up their equipment at the end of the day which is not what currently obtains at CENADI.

2.3.4.1.3.2 Classification of Data Applications

Most data applications in Cameroon do not have standard classifications and so all applications are given the same level of sensitivity and confidentiality except where the staff apply their intuitive perception.

2.3.4.1.3.3 The Distinction between Development and

Operation

This distinction is important in order to attain a good degree of reliable processing and avoid fraudulent practices.

Inadequate information technology resources makes it impossible for CENADI and other companies to have separate environments for development and operation.

2.3.4.1.3.4 Uniform Methods and Systems

This is very important for three reasons:

• For efficiency and cost-effectiveness, methods and systems of similar technical level, used in information applications within the same sector, should be uniform.
• Backup and maintenance operation will thus be highly facilitated
• The relative shortage of skilled manpower would be less serious if the available skills were shared between the existing various systems

Such uniformity does not actually exist currently except for ANTILOPE and TRINITE applications but can only be achieved through an effective coordination of information resources acquisition and applications development at the national level.

2.3.4.1.3.5Safeguard Measures

At CENADI and in most computerised sectors, safeguard policies are not uniform from one application to the other or from one site to another.

This is partly due to the difference in the available resources such as the type and management of support equipment and data sensitivity.

2.3.4.1.3.6 Backup Procedures

At CENADI and in most computerised sectors, there is now formalised backup procedure at the sites.

This is due to the different layouts of hardwares and softwares available. For instance, softwares at Yaounde and Douala are not entirely uniform (e.g. DATACOM/DB).

2.3.4.1.3.7 Automated Operation

At CENADI for instance, no operation is currently automated. This generally poses some problems in terms of responsibility sharing between the development and operation teams where there is a distinction.

2.3.4.1.4 Management Procedures

The most critical area of information applications safety in CENADI would obviously be the management of the services required for its smooth running.

Indeed, administrative and financial management methods have a great impact on the various aspects of information technology safety at this center with regard to PAGODE, ANTILOPE and TRINITE.

In this connection, a safety situation report written in 1984/85 on the various CENADI sites indicated that the PAGODE information site was the best managed. This was mainly due to the relatively autonomous management of the funds allocated to SINORG by the Cameroonian government. Experts even rightly predicted that the situation was going to get worse as soon as SINORG left and that is the case today.

The current autonomous budget management in respect of orders for services, consumer items and small equipment has paved the way for smoother operation of information applications, stricter compliance with maintenance contracts, and a closer monitoring of staff attendance.

In addition to the fact that there is an excessively centralized administrative procedures in terms of orders for services, consumer items and equipment, the computer centers under the Cameroonian authorities are not in control of services provided. This spoils the relationship between them and suppliers of those services.

Information applications and their safety are seriously affected by this situation. Like all other information applications, those of CENADI are so sensitive that if delivery of necessary services take so long the purpose may be defeated by the time they are delivered.

2.3.4.2 Maintenance

There are two types of maintenance:

• Hardware maintenance
• Software maintenance

For a good maintenance, users should adopt the right approach by:

• Selecting reliable softwares
• Signing a maintenance contract with a reasonable warranty in the event of a breakdown
• Applying preventive maintenance service
• Dealing with solvent and serious-minded suppliers
• Creating capacity margins

2.3.4.2.1 Hardware Maintenance

In Cameroon, the manufacturers are responsible for the maintenance of mini- and big computers, while the SSCIs handle micro-computers. However, there are no specialized SSCIs on the Cameroonian market for the maintenance of micro-processors. This creates enormous problems for the users especially those with imported hardwares or those whose hardwares could no longer be maintained since the suppliers have folded up.

Generally, users are not adequately aware of maintenance. Under the National Information Plan, about 70.6% of users have a maintenance contract; some of them import their hardwares directly form abroad and cannot find maintenance services locally.

In the public sector only 17.9% of the organizations are satisfied with their maintenance contracts while only 10% are satisfied among the parastatals.

It should be noted that users living far away from the suppliers' headquarters or agencies experience long delays in maintenance services.

2.3.4.3.3 Software Maintenance

There are software system maintenance and software application maintenance.

Softwares required for the operation of computers are generally delivered complete with maintenance warranty from the supplier.

Experts such as system engineers are required for the maintenance of this type of softwares as their maintenance is quite complicated.

Some users buy their software system directly from abroad and do not find suppliers locally to maintain them.

Application softwares are generally maintained by the SSCIs or the computer department of an organization on the basis of a number of simple rules usually contained in a manual.

Users do not always have instruction manual. Moreover, there is insufficient documentation on application softwares and where it exists, it is not standardized and very comprehensible.

Nearly 44% of users have a software maintenance warranty. This percentage remains low although some users make their own arrangements. The private sector has the highest number of maintenance warranty while the public sector is the least satisfied with their maintenance warranty services.

2.3.4.3 Remarks

There is a serious problem of maintaining micro-computers as users tend to purchase them without making sure of the reliability of their suppliers, knowing well that distributors and representatives are not stable on the market.

In addition, a good percentage of micro-processors are directly imported form abroad and some brands are not available in Cameroon.

Regarding the mini- and big computers, the manufacturers who generally maintain them are having problems getting paid by the government and parstatals going through serious economic crisis.

There is a long way to go in terms of information safety as many information personnel believe that this issue should be left alone so as not to have any problems with the authorities.

2.3.5 Information Technology Development Instruments

Information Technology development in any country requires investment in human resources, training and research.

2.3.5.1 Human Resources

The table below form the National Information Plan illustrates the trend of information staff employed by the users from all sectors over the period 1985-1989.

It would be noted from the national information plan that there is an increase in the number of Cameroonians employed: 12% for engineers and 16% for analysts and a significant drop in the number of expatriates over the period 1985-1989. Generally, the ratio is one engineer to three analysts including the programming analysts, which actually is just about average.

It should be noted that no user has qualified maintenance personnel such as engineers and technicians, hence a complete dependency on the suppliers.

In terms of users' requirements, these human resources remain inadequate, especially with regard to top level specialists such as information system design and data base engineers.

2.3.5.2 Training and Research in Information Technology

2.3.5.2.1

Despite widespread recognition of the importance of training in the information technology development process of a country, information technology education is not yet evenly distributed in the various curricula in Cameroon.

Although information technology is not taught at the elementary level, some high schools and higher institutions are starting to teach information technology.

2.3.5.2.1.1 Information Technology in Secondary Education

Although information technology education has not yet been introduced generally into the high schools, there is a movement in technical high schools in form of computer clubs.

Such clubs are generally established at the initiative of the teachers with foreign assistance. Some local suppliers provide gifts in form of hardwares, spare parts, and maintenance services.

Generally, it is teachers who are familiar with information technology who bring their colleagues and students into those clubs where they often develop applications for their institutions.

Some of these computer clubs exchange programmes between them. Each year some of them organize open houses were students exhibit information technology works.

One of the major problems facing computer clubs is the maintenance of their equipment. As a matter of fact, the local companies generally refuse to repair equipment not bought from them.

Moreover, the smooth running of these clubs is disrupted by the transfer of these teachers to other schools.

Computer clubs do not have budget of their own; they depend on funds from students' cooperatives and from outside.

2.3.5.2.1.2 Information Technology in Tertiary Education

Information technology courses are offered not only in some faculties and colleges at the university of Yaounde currently made up two universities (University of Yaounde I and University of Yaounde II), but in some institutions under ministerial departments.

Significant efforts are made at the faculty of science especially in the department of information technology established in 1990.

The introduction of information technology to the former university of Yaounde dates officially back to the 1979-1980 academic year in the department of mathematics, offering a Masters Degree in information technology. However, the Masters Degree did not go beyond that year (See table blow) as there were no candidates.

Despite the efforts made in enhancing information technology education in the scientific disciplines through the hiring of expert teachers (there are currently 11 teachers in the computer department) and the establishment of a computer department in 1990, there is no mention of information technology on certificates awarded by this department up to date.

However, from the 1983/84 academic year, an information technology option has been informally included in the masters degree in mathematics but very few students attend this course.

Although there are no official text establishing these two options, there was during the 1984/1985 academic year a Masters Degree in information technology and a Bachelors Degree in Mathematics with information technology as an option during the 1985/96 academic year. The department of information technology is also offering a Doctorate in information technology.

The table below shows the number of candidates awarded the three certificates.

All Science students are taught computer science by teachers from the department of Computer Science. Information technology is also taught to other faculties where by time teachers are teachers.

For its part, the National Polytechnic (ENSP) has started in earnest to train student engineers in information technology. This programme is being implemented in cooperation with the Lorrain National polytechnic in Nancy, France, under an inter-university convention between both institutions.

A project for the establishment of a department of Computer Science at ENSP was decided upon by the Polytechnic Governing Board in February 1989. Information technology option has been offered since 1989 in the department of Mathematics and Comp. Science.

In some higher institutions of earning under the Public service or other ministerial departments, computer science introductory courses are offered in all classes as options. Some of these institutions use micro-computers for their practicals.

Since 1990, there has been an institute of Technology (IUT) within the university of Douala offering certificate courses in information technology.

It has been noted, however, that the computer science courses offered are not tailored to the job market conditions. They are rather oriented towards science and research whereas they are really needed for managerial purposes.

Since 1991, more than four private higher institutions of learning education have been founded in Yaounde offering certificate courses in information management.

It is equally noteworthy that most computer science graduates were trained at IAI in Libreville, in colleges and universities in France, Great Britain and North America.

There are however a few companies specialising in training, which supplement government's higher institutions. These companies train mainly analysts, programmers and operations but their certificates are not officially recognized and this make it difficult for their graduates to get into the job market.

2.3.5.2.1.3 Support measures for training

Due to the lack of facilities for training in information technology, before 1992, the Cameroonian government was awarding scholarships each year for studies abroad.

From 1986-1989, France hosted the highest number of students from Cameroon with 200 scholarships accounting for 389 of the total number of scholarships awarded for information technology.

Within that period, 45 scholarships were awarded to students enroled at IAI in Libreville bringing Cameroon's contribution to IAI's budget to about FCFA 90,000,000. At the same time, the Cameroonian government awarded 529 scholarships for information technology out of a total of 7,366 scholarships abroad, which translates into 7.2%.

These figures do not include conditional scholarship renewals as there was no record of such awards.

In 1988/89, total scholarship allocations were kept at their 1987/1988 level or reviewed downwards. Only Canada received a higher number of scholarship students. It was a jointly financed programme with Cameroon paying the students monthly allowance and Canada taking care of tuition and related fees. This continued until 1990/1991. In 1991/92, the Cameroonian government awarded scholarships only for the training of trainers.

In 1992/1993, all scholarships abroad were suspended by the Cameroonian government and training for all henceforth the costs FCFA 50,000.

From 1984-1989, the government disbursed FCFA 1,163,800.000 for the training of information technologists abroad.

Before 1980, the Cameroonian government signed with IBI a convection establishing a joint scholarship fund to which Cameroon contributed between 1984 and 1988 the sum of US$294,000 for scholarships and study missions on information technology.

Some Cameroonian students studying abroad did not obtain scholarships or any special assistant from the government. They were supported by their families and relatives.

2.3.5.2.1.4 Continuous Training in Computer Science

Computer Science is an evolving discipline which requires continuous training of staff.

Generally, users of this technology from the public sector and the parastatals do very little in this regard. Indeed, training costs account for only a tiny percentage of their information technology budget.

In the public sector particularly, there are no specialized training courses in such important areas as software system. There are very few students attending training classes.

Users in the private sector make more effort than those in other sectors.

Information technology suppliers are more aware of the relevance of training. The following tables from the National Information Plan indicates investments made by suppliers and the number of people who benefited from training each year.

The table below indicates the number of people per category who benefited from training in Cameroon from 1985-1989.

Over this period, about 60% of the employees attended a training course in Cameroon. Thus, an average of 11 engineers and 9 analysts attended this training. The table below from the national information plan gives the number of persons per category who attended a training course abroad over the same period.

Cost of training in FCFA in Cameroon

Cost of training in FCFA abroad

Between 1985 and 1989, suppliers allocated FCFA 214 millions for training abroad, i.e. FCFA 1,192,000 per engineer and 1,500,000 per analysts over four years.

2.3.5.2.5 Sensitization and Popularization

Information technology culture is not very popular in Cameroon. The public is not adequately sensitized to the use of information technology; the television and radio do not devote enough air time to information technology either. Very few articles are written in the newspapers on information technology.

There are no public places where people can access information technology. Apart from a few seminars organized by the private sector and a few big shows like the information technology and office automation show in 1987 and 1988, the first African colloquium on information technology research from 13-20 October 1992, there are practically no public awareness activities.

2.3.5.2.2 Information Technology Research

In Cameroon, there are practically no organizations specializing in Information Technology research unlike in other sectors such as agriculture.

Across the world, there is a large number of research areas of which the most important are:

• Computer aided teaching
• Artificial Intelligence
• Data bases
• Digital analysis
• Software engineering
• Information System Design
• Parallelism
• Operational Research
• Data Analysis
• Information Technology Networks

In Cameroon, some research work has been done by some college professors on topics including:

• Parallel Algorithm and its applications
• Artificial Intelligence and its applications
• Data bases

Furthermore, it should be noted that unlike what obtains in other parts of the world, there is practically no working relationship between researchers and the suppliers of information technology.

2.3.5.3 Remarks

1. There is no policy in Cameroon for the introduction of information technology in schools with a view to developing students' creativity.

2. Information technology teaching at the faculty of science at the University of Yaounde I is neither formalized nor officialized. Professionalization would entail tailoring school curricula to job market situation in terms of information management, networks, maintenance of micro-computers, etc.

3. There are virtually no national machineries or legislation facilitating the training of top-level technicians especially in the maintenance of micro-computers.

4. The lack of sensitization policy for government officials on the advantages and use of information technology

5. There is virtually no educative framework, mass media, fairs and exhibitions informing the public about the purpose, use and importance of information technology.

6. Information research is conducted in a non-structured framework and does not constitute a backup to education.

7. Research programmes are not always tailored to the requirements of the country.

8. There is no real national association or body of information technologists who can raise public authorities' awareness about the relevance of the information technology and thereby set in motion the computerization process in their respective sectors.

9. The chronic instability of those in charge of information technology due to transfers and reforms.

2.3.6 Derivative Instrument from Information Technology

These include Telematics, data banks, and office automation.

Telematics occupies a pride of place in modern economies and acts as a backup to communication information technology. The development of this technology requires reliable telecommunications. Both should go hand in hand for a meaningful development of the technology. Reliable transmission is crucial not only for the transfer of data between two big computers but also for the dissemination of information to the public.

With the proliferation of computers and transmission equipment, there is a critical need for standard interfaces between types of hardwares, protocols, and standard transmission softwares. This will avert the likely problems of incompatibility between the various systems and thereby improve shared access to data.

Office automation will help improve national productivity.

The data banks, with a world annual market growth rate of about 20%, is a promising development sector. Thus, there are across the world 3000 data banks 75% of which are found in America and 20% in Europe. Because of the low development of statistical tools and telecommunications infrastructures, there are less than 1% of installed data banks in Africa. This is why nearly all data available on Africa are stored in foreign data banks especially in France, (ISIS-Africa, Ibiscus) 77% of which belongs to the public sector.

Data banks are of crucial importance. Indeed, the fact that data on a country is available only abroad may undermine national sovereignty and mortgage the decision making power of the authorities. Setting up data banks within a country will help maintain independent local transfer of information.

There is also a significant commercial stake since request for bibliographical data for instance may cost FCFA 7,500 every 15 minutes while cartographical data may cost FCFA 300,000 per hour.

How these instruments operate in Cameroon will now be discussed in detail.

2.3.6.1. Telematics

Telematics is a set of techniques and services combining information technology and telecommunication resources for on-line data transmission.

2.3.6.1.1 Telecommunications Infrastructure

Telephone accounts for 95% of the Cameroonian Telecommunications network while telex, telegraph, faxes, etc. account for the remaining 5%. Due attention is not paid to long-distance commuting and transmission. Despite a relative overloading of local lines, the network is imbalanced and only 20% of potential demands in telephone and telex services are satisfied, with only about three telephones per 1000 people; there are no telephones yet in the rural areas.

Telematics has not been taken into consideration in this venture. The telecommunications development master plan initiated in 1986 aimed at meeting 90% of telephone and telex requirements.

Furthermore, there are plans to have a completely digitalized network between 1997 and 2000 and eventually a digital service integration network.

2.3.6.1.3 Cameroon Packet Switching Network (CAMPAC)

Telematics in Cameroon is backed up by CAMAC which is a public data transmission network initiated in 1982 with the following objectives:

• To make possible reliable and cost effective exchange of data between various types of information technology equipment such as computers, terminals, etc. and between the latter and their various users.
• To make possible the establishment of infrastructure required for development of modern transmission processing methods, archives and information research.

With transmission backup from the existing Post and Telecommunications infrastructures, CAMPAC became a reality through the combined efforts of the DCIT now known as CENADI and the department of Telecommunications with the technical assistance of the French Cable and Radio Company. The network was officially opened in 1986 with a total investment of about FCFA 2 billion.

CAMPAC currently provides nearly all the information technology communications requirements throughout Cameroon and with the outside world. It also serves as a backup not only to traditional applications and remote processing, but also to new telematics value-added services such as electronic mail and accessing foreign data banks. In this regard, it offers:

• a specialized urban and inter-city liaison service
• a packet commuting service with a transmission protocol in line with notice no. X25 of the CCITT.

2.3.6.1.2.1 Geographical Location of COMPAC Network

The COMPAC network is currently operational in cities like Douala, Yaounde, Garoua, and Bafoussam with planned extension to other areas of the country depending on demands and available Posts and Telecommunications Infrastructure (See diagram below).

On the whole, there are 171 subscriptions, with an annual average increase of 35% since 1986.

The special urban and inter-city connections are restricted only to Yaounde and Douala with transmission speeds ranging from 2,400 to 4,800 bits per sec (bit/s).

The packet commuting service operates four virtual circuit commuters in Yaounde, Douala, Ganna and Bafoussam but the VCC allocated to Bafoussam is provisionally installed in Douala and this calls for special inter-city Bafoussam-Douala connections with synchronous X25 access to Bafoussam customers.

The X25 access is compatible with fast machines with X25 interfaces (1200, 4,800, 960 bit/s)

Nevertheless, two synchronous terminal concentrators were installed in Yaounde and Douala respectively. They enable slow machine (300, 600, 1200 bits/s) like mintels to access the packet commuters generally through the commuting telephone network (CTN/access).

On the whole, CAMPAC offers commuting speeds ranging from 300 to 9600 bits/s and makes possible the interconnection of the various types of equipment across the country: computers, terminal controllers, intelligent terminals, screen terminals, etc.

International communications are made possible through a 9600 bits/s satellite connection between CAMPAC and the international Transit point (NTI) in Paris.

2.3.6.1.2.2 Subscription distribution by locality and Sector

The updated table below from the National Information Plan and gives the geographical distribution of subscribers.

Douala and Yaounde together account for 95% of the subscribers with 75% residing in Douala. The highest demand has been for connections service accounting for 54% of the subscriptions, against 46% for packet commuting.

Most of CAMPAC's customers are from the public and private sectors while the parastatals lag behind with only 3% of the subscriptions, is mainly represented by CENADI and the PAGODE, ANTILOPE and TRINITE applications.

The private sector, with 65% of the subscriptions, has been the highest customer with the banks, insurance companies, industries and information technology suppliers in the forefront. CAMPAC's customers thus include about 60 private companies.

CAMPAC is open not only to professionals, but also to the public at large. From the records of the Douala Management Centre, packet communication traffic is currently over one billion characters per annum, i.e. 6 times higher than in 1985/86. Nearly 4000 communications are currently made every month, 40% of which are international.

Most international communications are outgoing, 95% of which are channelled to France. irtually all packet commuting traffic is generated by the private sector.

2.3.6.1.2.3 Potential demand for data Transmission

The high annual increase in subscriptions to CAMPAC clearly shows there is a significant potential demand which, however, has been very difficult to assess.

Over the period 1985-1989, only 1000 main telephone lines were installed, 4 special urban connections were allocated due to the lack of a network promotion policy. The special connection rate is estimated at 40% and represents is the average rate for the overall data transmission requirements. It has not been to satisfy the overall demand owing mainly to saturated telecommunications infrastructure.

2.3.6.2 Office Automation

Office automation encompasses word processing and other value-added services such as fax, telex, electronic mail, videitex, data bank access, etc.

Word processing is increasingly being used in offices, with nearly 60% of organizations prossessing this tool. However, the typewriter is still largely used. The proliferation of micro-computers has boosted the use of word processing.

The fax machine is the latest addition to office automation with a current utilisation rate of over 30% in government offices. There has been a significant rise in fax services since the opening of two special outfits:

• The first by INTELCAM and
• The second in the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications running paid phone booths for the public to make telephone calls and send fax messages.

There will be in the coming years an increasingly widespread use of the fax machine which has already proved its mettle and is affordable by the general public.

Electronic mail is provided mainly by CAMPAC through access to commuting telephone network. E-mail, whose current low patronage is attributable to ignorance, should be an important supplement to the telephone in the coming years in view of the expressed demand.

Videotex service is not available at CAMPAC, it is still being tested by the network managers.

There are practically no data bank servers throughout the country although it is very important to have speedy access to vaiable information . Socio-economic, medical, agricultural and scientific data are currently accessed through foreign attendants. Videotex utilization rate is around 3% for all sectors.

2.3.6.3 Data banks

Nearly all data banks in Cameroon have a potentially high demand from all sectors, especially the medical and scientific sectors.

There was a Cameroonian Agricultural data bank model developed by CENADI in 1986 and is now being implemented.

2.3.6.4 Remarks

1. CAMPAC network has helped promote telematics in Cameroon. There are still some problems such as:

• Saturated special urban connections in Yaounde and Douala;
• Relatively small number of available synchronous X25 commuting packet lines
• Excessive microwave failure rate despite the fact that there is a standby inter-station commuting back up facility, with the network running 24 hours;
• Inefficient commuting telephone network calls and long delays in obtaining dialling tones;
• Non-confidentiality of information through the network;
• Inadequate skilled manpower;
• Lack of a network promotion policy for CAMPAC

All these constitute a hindrance to the development of CAMPAC and telematics in Cameroon.

2. Office automation is gaining prominence in word processing and fax but still lags behind in other value-added services like data bank accessing whose virtual non-existence in Cameroon is an additional impediment.

3. Data banks provide a deeper insight into any particular discipline through data collection, storage and update.

Cameroon should have a well-defined policy for the promotion of the following data banks throughout the country:

• Industrial data bank for a better knowledge of industrial production (data on manufactured goods such as nomenclature, prices, etc.),
• Trade data bank (data on business ventures in Cameroon including trade volume)
• Socio-economic data bank (data on main socio-economic indicators)
• Tax and customs data banks (data on general tax, investment, and customs codes)
• Legislative data bank (data on laws and decisions of the National Assembly)
• Data bank on the job market (data on employment supply and demand)
• Data bank on employment (data on employment statistics)
• Data banks on studies conducted on Cameroon (data from various research subjects on Cameroon)

4. Information technology manpower is inadequate; there are few network specialists in the northern countries and are even rarer in Cameroon.

5. Only the big companies are represented in Cameroon (IBM, now known as CBM, BULL and HP). Since these companies serve only government offices, they are seldom aware of the "working stations" and scientific applications. They are relatively unskilled in long distance network.

Maintenance of Computers costs twice as it does in the northern countries for the same services. Inadequate spare parts compel them to import frequently and causes long delays in installation and repairs.

2.3.7 International Cooperation Instruments

In terms of information technology, Cameroon participates in the activities of some institutions specialized in multilateral and bilateral cooperation.

2.3.7.1 Multilateral Cooperation

Cameroon- IBI (Intergovernmental Bureau of Information Technology): Cameroon joined the IBI in 1975 and became a member of the governing board in September 1986. The IBI set up specialized agencies to fine tune its objectives for the implementation of member States' programmes.

Cameroon participated in the activities of one of the organizations, namely the International Institute for Information Technology Development (IBIDI) by giving its full support to the computer-aided learning project, IBI-LEARN.

IBI assisted Cameroon in its programmers training school project which has not yet taken off for lack of logistic resources.

Cameroon signed with IBI a convention establishing a joint scholarship fund which enabled many Cameroonians to attend seminars and obtained scholarships.

IBI is under liquidation since there are no logistic resources to implement its objectives.

Cameroons-Yamoussoukro (Cote d'Ivoire)

In 1985, the Yamoussoukro group which was an offshoot of IBI was established to map out a strategy on the use of Information technology as a tool for social and economic development of the African continent. The Cameroonian minister responsible for information technology was appointed member of the group's steering committee. However, this group was unable to carry out its assignments.

Cameroon-ACCT (Cultural and Technical Cooperation Agency)

The ACCT is an organ of Francophonie which awards short-term scholarships. Cameroonians are regular beneficiaries of the scholarships.

Cameroon-IAI (African Institute of Information Technology)

Cameroon signed on 29 January, 1971, in the Chadian Capital a convention between it and other countries of the sub-region with a view to establishing an African institute of information technology in Libreville. In addition to training as its main vocation, IAI lends its support to other activities such as the organization of seminars and courses.

Cameroon-PII (Intergovernmental Information technology programme)

At the 33rd UNESCO's general conference in Sophia, Bulgaria, in 1985, the inter-governmental information technology programme committee was formally launched as a replacement to the erstwhile interim intergovernmental committee. On that occasion Cameroon was elected member of PII's organizing committee for a four-year term.

PII's main objective was to set up in UNESCO a programme whose bringing a new pragmatic and operational international cooperation into information technology by training specialist, developing infrastructures, defining national policies and popularizing information technology.

It seems however that PII's program was focused on the educational sector in the developing countries although there were initial problems which hampered the implementation of its projects in Cameroon.

Although PII is a young organization, Cameroon earmarked a videotex project for contract tenders which has not yet been launched for lack of financial resources.

Cameroon-UNU-INRIA

Since 1986, the United Nations University, UNU, has initiated a tripartite cooperation arrangement involving the University of Yaounde, the National Institute of Information Technology Research (INRIA) and The United Nations University. Their efforts are backed by the French Ministry of Cooperation and Development in a bid to:

• Provide assistance to top-level education
• Assist in setting up and promoting research teams in University of Yaounde and the African regional level.

Subsequently, there were plans to organize an international scientific show. Having closely watched the scientific progress made in information technology in central and west Africa, the Ministry of Cooperation, INRIA, UNU and University of Yaounde decided to organize from 12-20 October 1992 the first African colloquium on information technology research.

Cameroon LICIA (International Computer and Applied Information Technology Laboratory)

LICIA is an intergovernmental organization established in 1984 with the main purpose of promoting and organizing in mainly African countries, research through cooperation with the industrial countries in an attempt to develop information technology and mathematical methods. LICIA offers scholarships in information technology.

Cameroon is an associate founding member of this laboratory.

2.3.7.2 Bilateral Cooperation

There is no agreement protocol between Cameroon and other countries in terms of information technology since this is not covered by the joint commissions.

2.3.7.3Remarks

1. Little has been done by way of international cooperation in information technology.

2. Since the national information technology market is small, trade should be promoted between neighbouring countries especially in central Africa under a set of agreements between countries of the subregion. This may culminate into joint initiatives to produce equipment, develop applications, and implement inter-state research programmes.

3. In view of the huge resources involved, big projects may be implemented under international cooperation.

4. Authorities responsible for information technology, economic and technical cooperation should work closely with those responsible for international cooperation to build on gains made in international cooperation. Under joint commissions, information technology should be given a pride of place and information technology officials should be part of the team of experts.

5. Further sharing of experiences with northern and southern countries will enable Cameroon to acquire the necessary know-how from foreign countries.

2.3.8 Technological Transfer Instruments

Generally, technological know-how is transferred by implementing at national level big applications such as the PAGODE, ANTILOPE, TRINITE, CAMPAC and the national information plan. These projects are carried out by joint teams of experts and customers.

A committee is set up to ensure that the objectives are implemented. Under the terms of the contract between the government and the consultancy, logistical support is given to the members of the follow up committee and their counterparts thereby providing an impetus seldom found in the administration.

An enabling environment is thus created for a real transfer of know-how. Indeed, training is included in all projects in order to provide the manpower required to sustain the system put in place. There are also sensitization seminars and study missions abroad to keep the customers abreast of difficulties encountered in implementing similar projects. These also enable them to kow how far other countries have gone in some specific areas.

The transfer of know-how may be time-consuming if it is not well managed; it becomes vulnerable when nationals replacing expatriates leave their job.

Know-how transfer in equipment industry is still at its early stage as the bulk of these equipment are still manufactured abroad and maintained by suppliers.

2.3.9. General Remarks

1. From the foregoing, policy makers have become more aware of the importance of information technology in economic, social and cultural development of Cameroon. The government thus implement some large-scale projects such as PAGODE, TRINITE, ANTILOPE and CAMPAC. With these, information technology has gained so much strategic prominence that any serious handicap to their operation could disrupt the social peace.

2. In addition to the technical aspects, teaching, organizational and political skills should be developed for the benefit of Cameroonian policy makers so as to make them aware of the importance of information technology in the social and economic development process of the country.

3. The computerization process in Cameroon depends on resources and not on requirements since the market is basically supply-dominated.

4. There has been a rapid increase in the number of micro-computers and some organizations have put in place applications on administrative, financial and budget management.

5. The Cameroonian computerization level is still very low as it does not solve most problems and does not get information through to the policy makers.

Cameroon should, therefore, go beyond this initial stage of computerization which has a number of major shortcomings including:

• Underutilization of existing information technology resources
• Inadequate introduction of information technology to some government offices and the SME/SMI
• The lack of software industry in the country
• Staff training courses are not systematically organized.
• Shortage of micro-computer maintenance technicians, skilled and experienced information technology technicians in some specialized areas like networks, systems and databases.
• Most organizations do not have applications other than those relating to traditional management.
• Haphazard acquisition of hardware and software usually without prior studies
• The lack of an enabling legal and fiscal environment for the development of information technology
• Most users do not have a real electronics and information technology culture
• Lack of coordination between information and telecommunications development; this does not bode well for the development of telematics.
• Unassertive exploration of international cooperation mechanisms in information technology

6. The lack of an association or a body of information technology experts to familiarize users with the checks and balances of the profession.

7. Inefficient use of budget allocated to information technology as projects are abandoned mid-stream. These are projects related to the computerization of national identity cards, the establishment of an agricultural data bank public service personnel management (ANTILOPE), etc.

2.4. Madagascar

2.4.1 Introduction

In Madagascar information processing has largely been developed under a policy characterized by:

a) Cost-control

b) Exclusive use of national manpower

c) Equipment compatibility

All these fall under six large phases:

2.4.2 From 1953-1963

As the only a period when data processing equipment such as calculators, sorting machines, filing machines, card punches and checking machines were used.

As a sole user, the Madagascan government set up a center in each of the six provinces.

Major processing focused on administrative and tax management with foreign trade in Antananarivo. The entire staff were Madagascans and all the centres were placed under the Ministry of Finance through the Statistics Department.

2.4.3 1963-1972

In 1963, the computer came on board. The Ministry of Finance through the statistics department abandoned the old traditional equipment for computers and centralized all its activities in Antananarivo by setting up two centers with IBM 1401 computers.

The first center was in the Statistics department with two central units of 12 and 8 KO with hard disk, magnetic tape and printer. The second was at the Railways Corporation with a 12 KO, hard disk and a printer.

The old processing machines were re-cycled and being used for design, development and operation in information technology.

The national manpower has been used to implement the following applications:

• Payroll
• Rural/Urban taxes
• Foreign trade
• Automobile fleet management
• Government revenues and expenditures
• Tax accounting
• Treasury bill accounting

In a bid to build national capacity, the Madagascan government, a signatory to the convention establishing the African Institute of Information Technology, an inter-state training institution established by OCAM and based in Libreville, benefited from the training of some national analysts/programmers before Madagascar finally withdrew from OCAM.

2.4.4 From 1972-1975

Over this period, the general government policy allowed for free initiatives in computerization.

As the Ministry of Finance and the Statistics department withdrew their control of Information technology, investment multiplied and information technology equipment were made available to:

• The National Provident Fund (CNPAS)
• Ministry of Works
• University of Madagascar
• Several Private companies

However, in 1973 through decree number 73-030, the government set up an information technology committee to design a clear cut information policy and map out strategies to attain the objectives under the policy.

Information cost control and accounting issues were some of the highlights of the policy. The information technology committee soon realized that the computer centers were costing the Madagascar government FM 1.2 billion (equivalent amount in FCFA) and that the various existing computers were using incompatible operating systems and different programming languages.

The information technology committee, therefore, proposed:

1. The establishment of a national information technology department

2. The creation of single computer center centralizing all computer activities

An offer was advertised for contract tenders for a central memory BULL 6000 computer of 1024 KO.

However, neither the single computer center nor the national information technology department ever took off the ground, nor was the BULL 6000 computer ever installed.

The private sector continued to acquire equipment, with the Tamatave port acquiring at the same time its computer.

The information technology committee was responsible for the training of three Madagscan students for a Masters degree in applied information technology and management (MIAGE)

2.4.5 From 1975-1979

With the change of government in Madagascar, the information technology committee ceased to exist.

Several brands of computers invaded government offices and private sectors and there was no regulation in force.

2.4.6 From 1979-1988
At the beginning of this period, the President of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar appointed a special advisor on information policy, in the erson of Rabearivelo Andriamalagasy, Managing Director of the Madagascan Innovative Institute (IMI), who would single handedly took control of information technology for several years.

He geared his policy towards equipment standardization, skilled and sufficient manpower training and technological development based on the following observations:

• Madagascar at the beginning of this period had 15 machines in its fleet which was considered too much for the level of local skills but which were, however, outdated.
• The compartmentalization of equipment: each manufacturer had its own policy on its equipment specifications and application portability even with different models of the same brand. Only a few manufacturers were operating in Madagascar: IBM, BULL and NCR for information technology; BURROUGHS and OLIVETTI for electronic accounting machines.
• The information technology personnel are very few and are made up of high level technicians trained on the job or by manufacturers who are not familiar with applications whose programme sources are often not available and written in the specific language of each manufacturer like GAP or TAB.
• All efforts tended towards over-centralization in an attempt to counteract the negative effects of Socialism in Madagascar.

Equipment Standardization

The following major decisions were taken:

• To maintain a small number of machine models meeting the criterion of application portability. One manufacturer was selected for the big systems i.e. BULL which was controlling then 70% of Madagascan equipment over the period 1979-1988.
• To promote, keep and enforce the COBOL C as the only programming language in spite of the contrary opinion held by manufacturers. This was done in the interest of application portability from one machine to another. Information technology applications in Madagascar almost was exclusively for management. Each center was, therefore, asked to transpose its programmes or at worst to re-write them where the sources were not available.
• Courses and Seminars on compatible COBOL were organized with the assistance of the French government and attended by all computer programmers and programmer/analysts totalling about 50.

• Change of keyboarding materials; all the old card punches and checking machines were replaced by diskette-operated BULL KDS or KDU supplied under contract with maintenance warranty.
• All other companies were henceforth compelled to buy the BULL equipment for compatible file transfer even with a different brand of information equipment.
• Payment for data capture even when it was done for family members, importation of spare parts of this equipment had to be approved and signed by the special advisor.

The argument advanced by the signatory was always that of compatibility: to avoid the proliferation of non-compatible PCs in Madagascar especially those left behind by missionaries and experts from international organizations.

Information Technology Manpower Training

In addition to training courses and seminars on COBOL C mentioned earlier, the establishment of a national information technology school was decided in 1982 with the immediate objective of training programmers analysts in two years. By the end of 1994, it was decided to open a second batch to train technicians and engineers but this did not start until the following year set due to lack of resources.

The first cycle enroled 50 students out of the 2000 tested while the second cycle enroled 25 out of the best students from the first cycle.

The school was located at Fianarantsoa about 500 km south of the capital, and is also home to the mainly scientific regional university. However, most computer centers are located in Antananarivo and some in Tamatave port.

They are funded by the Madagascan government and the Inter-governmental Bureau for Informatics (IBI).

Equipment:

At the beginning, ten stations with a 68,000-card processor, a monitor and a keyboard were used for practicals. Additional two SYMAG 4000 micro-machines were purchased, followed a few years later by (a) One NORMEREL machine operating on UNIX with six terminals and one 40 MO hard disk and (b) Eight PC IBM compatible mini-computers.

The Library:

There is practically no library due to the acute shortage of font.

The regional university of Tamatave, specialized in management and economics tried in vain to take over this training project in spite of the French government's assistance. The center, therefore, had to settle for introductory information technology courses for its students in management and economics who are taught by expatriates or local professionals. The practicals were done mainly at the computer center at Tamatave port.

Furthermore, the Antananarivo accounting training center tried to introduce computer science classes with the assistance of the World Bank financing about 30 micro-computers imported directly despite the disapproval of the special advisor. Unfortunately, these machines were not gainfully used due to the lack of adequate skills.

Micro-electronic Technology

In 1981, a partnership was initiated between the Madagascan innovation institute and a french company, SYMAG. The purpose was to transfer technology for the assembly of micro-computers; there were also plans to set up an assembly plant.

Most members of the computer community in Madagascar and the manufacturers were opposed to the assembly project because the Madagascar market did not yet have the capacity to absorb its products and that the project was considered too ambitious because the technology involved was a fast-growing one and the plant would not be able to cope. However, SYMAG folded up in France and the project had to be abandoned, but another socialist company, The Madagascan Information Processing Company (STIM) was established as a distributor for SYMAG at the initial stage and NORMEREL a few years later. STIM automatically enjoyed a near monopoly of micro-computers until 1988 as other companies were handicapped by import regulations.

All the ministries, parastatals, socialist companies and mixed-economy companies were compelled to buy equipment with Madagascan labels such as LEFONA and PRINTY (printer). Most of these machines were under-utilized due to lack of skills.

Assessment of Information Policy

Information policy during that period was based on democratic hard line socialist policy which benefitted only a few people with nearly exclusive monopoly.

Equipment Standardization

Over this period, BULL accounted for nearly 70% of mini-computers and big systems and 100% of the keyboarding equipment. It should be noted that information technology developed so fast that with the arrival of new more performing and compact equipment, the establishment of network, and the emergence of new standards in operating systems, the market pattern and the old policy had to change.

Regulations

The STIM company benefited most from import regulations on micro-computers as it imposed its own models such as the multiple CP/M on the market as against the MS/DOS used abroad. A lot of money had to be spent to make up for lost grounds due to a poor strategy.

Training Policy

The training policy ran into trouble with the academia and donor agencies concerning the type of institution to use and its location.

Teaching aid and library were not available due to lack of funds; this was a major handicap to students who graduated as computer engineers without adequate practicals. Fortunately they have been able to bridge that gap by attending courses; most of them have been successful too.

Donor agencies including the World Bank were not forthcoming probably because of the monopoly given to STIM. The World Bank, however, provided funds for the purchase of information equipment, not sold by STIM, to the accounting training center, INSCAE.

Information Technology Management

This was a failure as the SYMAG company responsible for the transfer of technology collapsed. Furthermore, (a) The option chosen was not the international standard (b) The project was not approved by the computer community and (c) The idea came too soon for the Madagascans who were not ready for this type of industry but too late for technological advances.

Conclusions

Madagascar during this period was going through economic recession; its general policy was geared towards austerity measures aimed saving the country needless expenses. Information policy was so much regimented that it failed to develop.

Apart a few those decisions taken, no law was promulgated nor was any information technology plan developed.

From 1988 to date

July 1988: the importation system was no longer officially regulated. This was one of the main spin-offs of the liberalization policy initiated in Madagascar and recommended by the World Bank and IMF to revamp the economy.

During this period, successive government (End of Second Republic, Transition and The Third Republic) applied the liberalization policy to information technology. The government washed its hands of information technology activities except for training courses by the ENI and the companies.

The Ministry in charge of higher education is solely responsible for decisions concerning ENI and education in the various regional centers but it faces mainly financial problems.

Each ministry tried to use Madagascan and/or foreign private economic operators to computerize their department by implementing master plans in organization and information technology. This is followed by contract tender advertisement for hardwares, softwares and applications development funded by government's own resources or by international organizations such as ADB, CDF, World Bank (IDA CRESED, CRESSAN), EDF, FAC, etc.

Liberalization was carried out in such a way that:

• No decision making or advisory body had to be established
• No regulation was made concerning hardware, software, development plan, safety, confidentiality and intellectual property
• In terms of data transmission, since the Madagascan telecommunications facilities were very old, very few companies and government officials used them. That is why there was no tariff regulation policy on telematics.
• There has been a haphazard proliferation of computer hardware and software and the capacity utilization of most of them was only 40% and often limited office automation
• There was also a proliferation of service, representative and training companies without regulations or service quality control.
• Information technology in Madagascar has been overwhelmed by new technologies from outside with no serious efforts made to make the maximum profit from investment. This is the ransom for the policy that has been conducted to date.

2.5. The Case of Cote d'Ivoire

2.5.1 Introduction

Informatics had already made its appearance in Côte d'Ivoire at the time of the first generation of computers. The first computer, a GAMMA 30, made by the Bull Company, was installed in the Ministry of Economy and Finance at the Office of Statistics as early as 1962. IBM, for its part, had been present since 1950, but its involvement had been mainly with mechanical data processing.

The Government very soon took on board the need to create the conditions needed to attract Ivorians to this sector of activity. Firstly there was the introduction of a bonus for qualified data processors and then, in 1967, the establishment of a Central Bureau of Mechanical Data Processing (Office Central de la Mécanographie, OCM).

Subsequently there was clear evidence of this will to promote the intensive use of computers at all levels, and to ensure a better command of these tools by Ivorians.

The following phases of government action can be discerned:

Phase I: Before 1980 (Date of the Establishment of the National Commission for Information Processing, Commission Nationale pour le Traitement de l'Information, CNTI)

Almost all state computer applications were centralized, mainly a the Central Bureau of Data Processing (OCM).

Phase II: From the Establishment of the CNTI to the Dissolution of the General Secretariat for Information Technology (Secrétariat Général a l"Informatique, SGI)

Dissatisfaction on the part of the major users of OCM led eventually to the formulation of a coherent informatics policy for the public and private sectors: development of the first National Informatics Plan, followed by the development of coordination and supervision mechanisms: National Commission for Informatics, (Commission Nationale pour l'Informatique, CNI); General Secretariat for Informatics (Secrétariat Général à l'Informatique, SGI); and Ministerial Commissions for Informatics, (Commissions Ministérielles de l'Informatique, CMI). The implementation of this policy was by no means problem-free. This period also coincided with the break-through of microcomputers in the world at large, including Côte d'Ivoire.

Phase III: After the Dissolution of the SGI

The Office and Inspectorate of Public Works, (Direction et Contrôle des Grands Travaux, DCGTx), an existing institution, regains control of national informatics, absorbing the SGI, a process timidly resisted by the OCM. While the SGI saw its role as one of helping and advising, the DCGTx attempted at the same time to direct and manage major government agency projects. This, too, did not happen without some grinding of teeth.

2.5.2 Inventory of the Instruments of National Informatics Policy

The table in Annex A1 provides an inventory of the instruments of informatics policy which we have been able to uncover from documents gleaned with great difficulty, and from interviews with some of the persons involved.

The categories of instruments to which the table refers are:

(i) Mechanisms for the analysis, selection, formulation and review of informatics policy options;

(ii) Instruments (means) used to implement informatics policy options and to apply them effectively;

(iii) Instruments used as interfaces with other areas of public policy.

2.5.3 Detailed Analysis of Some Instruments

This section will present an analysis of the instruments examined in section 2.5.1: Their objectives; the extent to which the objectives were achieved, and the main problems solved by these instruments; and the factors which contributed to their success or failure.

2.5.3.1 Central Bureau of Data Processing, OCM

Objectives

(i) To centralize major government applications of information technology (IT);

(ii) To enable the Government to recruit and retain competent computer professionals;

(iii) To contribute to the training of Ivorian computer staff for the public and private sector.

Achievements. Principal problems solved.

• Computerization of Government Departments

OCM achieved the computerization of the main activities of the Ministry of Economy and Finance: Treasury, Taxation, Customs, Personnel Administration, and payroll of civil servants and government officials.

Up to 1979 OCM took part in the computerisation of 15 ministries and 25 government or parastatal institutions, including the Ministries of Public Works, Construction, Posts and Telecommunications, Interior and the Civil Service.

• Training of Ivorian Computer Specialists

OCM initiated the first training programmes in the country for computer professionals: key board operators, programmers, program analysts, design engineers.

It contributed to the training of computer professionals outside the country, in companies (notably SINORG and SIERIA in France) and in French universities (mainly CNAM)

By 1980 Ivory Coast had all in all 1900 computer specialists, 770 in the public sector and 1130 in the private one.

• Career prospects for computer professionals

OCM facilitated the recruitment and improved the career prospects in the public and parastatal sector for Ivorians skilled in computer technology.

Pooling of resources

There was a pooling of resources and of methods of computerizing administrative structures.

Factors which Contributed to the Successes of OCM

The legal status granted to the OCM, of a Public Industrial and Commercial Company (Etablissement Public a Caractère Industriel et Commercial, EPIC). This status enabled OCM to adopt a position detached from the civil service and to offer salaries matching those prevailing in the private sector. The salary package relied on bonuses granted to computer staff and to all persons whom the management of OCM wished to consider as such. Already in 1963, even before the establishment of OCM, there existed an "efficiency bonus" and an "expense allowance". These were followed by a "performance bonus".

Factors which Contributed to the Failures of OCM

Excessive centralization of Government information technology resources. The cost of the various information systems were met from a central budget (of the OCM) instead of being assigned to the budgets of benefiting institutions.

Remoteness of users from their information systems; there was no direct access to information.

OCM relied for its existence essentially on Government subsidies and apparently behaved like a supplier free of any need to balance the budget. In 1980 the Government allocated francs cfa 15 billion for information technology expenses in the public and semi-public sector. The budget of OCM (2.7 billion cfa francs in 1980) accounted for 20% of this expenditure.

Overlapping responsibilities among the three groups involved: OCM, user departments and suppliers of hardware, software and computer services. Suppliers were tied contractually to OCM. From this arose some confusion of responsibility concerning the definition of objectives and the formulation of requirements. Suppliers attempted increasingly to draw up contracts directly with user departments.

2.5.3.2 National Commission for Information Processing, CNTI

Objectives

(i) To study the potential problems of informatics in Côte d'Ivoire;

(ii) To undertake research and refine statistics on the information technology situation in Côte d'Ivoire;

(iii) To produce the first National Informatics Plan.

Achievements. Main problems solved

• First statistical results on information technology in Côte d'Ivoire.
• First National Informatics Plan (1980-1985).
• Creation of awareness of the potential of information technology among decision makers and preparations for the institutional framework (CNI, SGI, and the CMIs).

Factors which Contributed to the Successes of CNTI

• Tension between OCM and user departments. All partners of OCM were ready for a change.
• Full Exploitation of OCM resources. Full use was made of OCM"s human and material resources and of numerous foreign experts, whose services were, of course, paid for at great expense.

• A favourable economic climate. The on-coming crisis was not yet clearly apparent at the national level.
• The very favourable political climate at the Ministry of State, to which CNTI was attached.

Factors which Contributed to the Failures of CNTI

It can be said that CNTI accomplished its mission. CNTI was merely a transitional instrument. Immediately after the adoption of the National Informatics Plan CNTI disappeared, giving way to the very mechanisms it had helped to bring about.

2.5.3.3 First National Informatics Plan (1980-1985)

Objectives

(i) To create awareness among officials, decision makers and the public at large;

(ii) To educate and train Ivorian nationals.

Education and training were identified as a priority, with research linked to teaching as a corollary. The eventual aim of training was the Ivorization of information systems project directors and design staff. It was intended to:

• Create initial and regular education and training facilities adapted to the needs of the country, and establish a recognized diploma system guaranteeing quality. The Plan envisaged that the number of specialists (other than keyboard operators) would increase from 1200 in 1980 to 3250 in 1985;
• Provide an adequate number of Ivorian computer professionals at the various levels of competence. In 1980, whereas the rate of Ivorization of administrative and clerical staff was 97%, the rate for management staff of the SSCIs (Computer services bureaux and consultancy services, Sociétes de Services et de Conseil en Informatique) was 26%.
• Train, on the basis of continuing education, designers of information systems and maintenance technicians. The objective was, on the one hand, to enable staff already in post to be retrained, upgrading their qualifications and keeping up with technical developments; on the other, to re-skill some workers to enable them to join the informatics work force;

(iii) To standardize and coordinate, defining the conditions which would guarantee better computerization.

It was intended to define and bring about the prerequisites for efficient computerization: standards and methodologies, systematic resort to master plans for the various organisms, coordination in the selection of hardware and software etc.;

(iv) To accelerate administrative reform and increase effectiveness of administration. To develop telecommunications so as to achieve administrative decentralization.

It was intended to use the computerization of the great government and para-statal departments as a lever to bring about administrative reform. Each computerization process was to provide the opportunity of redefining procedures so as to improve management and the services provided to users. Telecommunications and networks were to be developed, to promote the decentralization of administrative services and balance between regions;

(v) To establish a computer industry.

It was intended to promote the development of markets for the computer industry and to consolidate a strategy of independence;

(vi) To promote international cooperation.

Achievements. Main problems solved

Creating awareness among officials, decision makers and the public at large.

The media (radio, newspapers, television) were used, exhibitions organized (SABIC, African Informatics Days - Journées africaines d'Informatique, JAI) and conferences held. Research undertaken during the preparation of the 1986-90 Plan produced the following results:

General Public

• 84% of the population has no contact with informatics;
• 56% of Ivorians had a positive view of the impact of informatics on the country's development;
• 56% of the population has no views on the informatics phenomenon;
• 65% thought that informatics, though essential, led to unemployment;
• 54% had never heard of informatics;
• 75% were unaware of the institutional framework;

Users

• only 25% of enterprises or organisations had an informatics plan or a master plan;
• 55% of companies were capable of being computerised.

Training of Ivorian nationals

Up to 1985 the following national mechanisms were in operation:

• OCM: training of programmers, keyboard operators and data capture operators.
• Higher Institute for Informatics (Institut Supérieur d'Informatique, ISI-INSET): training of program analysts, 24 a year.
• Ivorian Management Institute (Institut Ivoirien de Gestion, INIG), attached to the French Management Institute, a private French institution: conversion to informatics of students with a Master's degree in economics or sciences: 24 design engineers a year.
• In the private sector, the development of microcomputers brought about, since 1980, the almost anarchic growth of a number of training institutions for programmers and program analysts.

In 1980 Côte d'Ivoire had all in all 1900 computer professionals. By 1 January 1985 that number has risen to 2942.

Standardization and coordination, defining the conditions which would guarantee better computerization.

• A National Council for Standardization, Conseil National de Normalization, was established, replacing the Ivorian Standardization Office, which had been in operation since 1981;
• The following activities were initiated but not brought to fruition:

A terminology for informatics products;

A methodology for formulating master plans. The RACINES method was adopted;

Models for files and specifications for information technology tenders;

Procedures for computer technology bids for government contracts.

Acceleration of administrative reform and increasing management effectiveness. Development of telematics so as to achieve administrative decentralization.

Establishment of SYTRANPAC, connecting SYTAN, the national network for packet data transmission with the French TRANSPAC network.

[NB. No comment is made on objectives (v) and (vi]

Factors which Contributed to Successes in the Implementation of the First National Plan

These are the same as for CNTI.

Factors which Contributed to Failures in the Implementation of the First National Plan

• The clumsy and bureaucratic character of the newly established institutional framework (CNI,SGI,CMI). These institutions were attached to a non-technical Ministry and did not have at their disposal the necessary skills to accomplish their mission;
• Rivalry between OCM and SGI, preventing the smooth functioning of these institutions;
• Opposition to by the technical Ministries, some of which were notorious for their immobility in relation to SGI;
• Inadequate training of the software engineers produced by INIG. The Government had signed an agreement with IFG for the training of computer engineers. On the one hand this institution had not been approved by the French Government for purposes of issuing diplomas in computer engineering. On the other, INIG tended to recruit students who lacked the background needed to enable them to become computer engineers after one year's theoretical training. "For political reasons, these specialists,trained on the cheap, found themselves in top government positions." Extract from the "Critical Evaluation" of the Ivorian Government Informatics Policy.

2.5.3.4 Second National Informatics Plan (1986-1990)

Objectives

(i) To pursue and accelerate the coordinated use of information technology in Côte d'Ivoire;

(ii) To promote education and training;

(iii) To develop computerisation in the government and parastatal sectors. To speed up decentralization and improve services to users;

(iv) To extend the use of computers to all sectors of the national economy;

(v) To develop a national computer industry and services, notably by the establishment of a microcomputer assembly plant;

(vi) To promote informatics research, so as to form a pool of expertise;

(vii) To promote the collection, storage and dissemination of local and international data so as to develop large data bases and banks;

(viii)To strengthen bilateral and multilateral cooperation.

Achievements. Main problems solved

There is no statistical information about the implementation of this Plan. It is thus possible to undertake a critical analysis only of what has been started.

Training and computer literacy

A considerable number of institutions were established or have modified existing programmes.(See Annex). However, all planned institutions did not see the light of day. With regard to computer literacy, although some progress was made by comparison with 1980, 60% managers of computer programmes were still expatriates in 1985.(See Annex).

Decentralization

The Table "Government Expenditure by Ministry" [Annex 2, p.7] shows that some government decentralization of computer applications in the public sector did take place. However, 46.22% of government expenditure on information technology was allocated to the OCM and the Ministry of Economy and Finance.

National computer industry

The planned microcomputer assembly plant did not materialize. The project envisaged a mixed venture: 60% of the investment was to be drawn from government and private Ivorian sources and 40% from a private construction company. The capital was to amount to cfa francs 350 million. It was to assemble annually 3000 microcomputers, 1000 of which were to be absorbed by the Government, and it was to create about 50 jobs.

Research

Plans have remained at the stage of pious hopes.

Data bases and banks

The existing data banks, as listed below, pre-date the Second National Plan.

• Socio-Economic Data Bank (Banque de Données Socio-Economiques, BDSE), 1982, developed by OCM;
• Data Bank on International Transactions and Exchange (Banque de Données Economiques sur les Transactions Internationales et les Echanges, BETIE), 1982. Contains customs statistics. Its server is OCM, which developed it.
• Administrative Data Bank (Banque de Données Administratives, BDA), operated in the context of administrative reform, this data bank is restricted to the constitutional documents of the relevant institutions.

• Automatic Customs Clearance System (Système de Dédouanement Automatique des Marchandises, SYDAM). The aim of this system was to improve administrative procedures concerned with customs. However, the initial choice of hardware - Bull mini-6 - led to many failures and consequently a low take up.

Factors which Contributed to Successes in the Implementation of the Second National Plan

Generous funding of the institutional framework, despite the economic crisis. SGI had no compunction about having recourse to expensive private expertise, from within and outside the country.This was the case, for example, with the INIG training programme for software engineers.

Factors which Contributed to Failures in the Implementation of the Second National Plan

These are identical to the factors accounting for the failures of the First National Plan.

2.5.3.5 The Institutional Framework:

National Commission for Informatics, (Commission Nationale pour l'Informatique, CNI); General Informatics Secretariat (Secrétariat Général à l'Informatique, SGI); and Ministerial Commissions for Informatics, (Commissions Ministérielles de l'Informatique, CMI)

Objectives of CNI

(i) To study and propose to the Government the main lines of a national informatics policy;

(ii) To give reasoned advice on the National Informatics Plan and preparatory documents;

(iii) To give reasoned advice on all papers, surveys or audit reports concerning information technology achievements;

(iv) To instigate or recommend for implementation all information technology projects, surveys and programmes.

Objectives of SGI

(i) To coordinate, supervise and monitor programmes and information technology achievements;

(ii) To coordinate the implementation of the Informatics Plan and make a progress report once a year, in keeping with budgetary procedures; to prepare the next plan upon the expiry of the current one;

(iii) To act as the Secretariat of CNI.

Objectives of the CMIs

(i) To propose to the Minister a computerization master plan, following the guidelines laid down in the National Informatics Plan;

(ii) To coordinate the master plan, making a progress report on its implementation, taking into account budgetary procedures;

(iii) To prepare the next plan before upon expiry of the previous one.

Achievements. Main problems solved.

On the whole, the problems solved are the same as those of the informatics plans, since the CNI, SGI and the CMIs were the mechanisms responsible for formulating or supervising the plans.

• Some 30 computerization master plans were drawn up in ministries and public services. Ten plans were completed by SGI engineers but not all were put into operation;
• Only one master plan was implemented: a Security Project to introduce fake-proof identity cards;.

• Methodological tools such as RACINES, MERISE and the WARNIER LCS and LCP methods were fairly widely distributed.

A Factor which Contributed to Failures in the Implementation of the Institutional Framework

Inflexibility and bureaucracy

There was no connection between the budgetary procedures and the procedures for developing the informatics plan at departmental level. It was as though the centralization of informatics had remained as it had been under the OCM.

2.5.3.6 Inspectorate of Public Works, (Direction et contrôle des grands travaux,)

Objectives

(1) To examine feasibility studies for, and implementation of master plans and major government computerization projects. To secure and promote methodological instruments within the government;

(ii) To help in the regulation of information technology contracts;

(iii) To support the practical and continuing training of information professionals for government institutions;

(iv) To create and maintain a permanent monitoring unit to oversee government and private information technology resources.

(v) To develop and maintain a systems chart of national informatics

Achievements. Main problems solved

Examination of master plans and promotion of methodological instruments

Help was given to ministerial departments which experienced difficulties with their information systems either because of their obsolescence or because of 'sabotage". These were:

• Tax Office (Direction Générale des Impôts, DGI): master plan;
• Ministry of Health and Social Security: census of officers;

• development of a personnel data base and of a model for a social security and health card;

• Ministry of Education: personnel census, development of a personnel data base; computerisation of student cards;

• Ministry of Finance: audit of the civil servants' payroll:
• Ministry of Employment and of the Civil Service: Development of various preliminary studies and calls for tenders on behalf of many other government agencies.

Regulation of information technology cibtracts.

• In collaboration with the Department of Public Contracts, development of models of government contracts (specifications) for computer services. These models have not yet been accepted by all parties concerned, notably not by GIMI, the main professional body representing the interests of private computer companies;

• Technical and financial advice of DCGTx requested for nearly all computer contracts, whether by mutual agreement or by tender.

Factors which Contributed to Successes in the Implementation of the DCGTx

• Concentration of technical and financial resources within DCGT.
• Enjoying the confidence of the highest political authorities (President, Prime Minister) and therefore great freedom of action for the management of DCGTx, for example in calling on foreign, especially French experts, without going to tender.

Factors which Contributed to Failures in the Implementation of the DCGTx

• The factors which contributed to the DCGTx's failures were the very ones which contributed to its successes. When the brief for tenders had been drawn up and tenders were called for, most of the agencies involved became very reticent about entrusting the DCGTx with full control and management of the process of computerization, for the following reasons:

• The agencies were not willing to relinquish with good grace their powers to control the implementation, and often even the financial regulation of their own contracts.
• Private computer services companies, grouped within the GIMI, also vigorously opposed the almost discretionary powers which the DCGTx intended to exert over all the Government informatics contracts.

• Whereas the SGI was satisfied simply to offer help, advice, and supervision of contract procedures, the DCGTx wished to direct research, control contract procedures and carry out or control the implementation and financial regulation of contracts.

2.6. the Case of Senegal
2.6.1 Introduction: Science and Technology Policy
2.6.1.1 Development Policy
In Senegal the main directions, the objectives and the areas of priority action of economic and social development policy have always been subject to planning. Since 1960 eight plans have been implemented.
Characteristically, Senegalese planning has been imperative in sectors where government intervention predominates, and inspirational in sectors with majority private participation, such as industry and tourism.

r>Economic indicators confirm that 1979 was a turning point in the economic and financial history of the country. A diagnosis of the situation brought to light a certain number of fundamental problems which called for a new economic policy.
The current Plan, the eighth, not only prescribes reform and adjustment programmes for the medium and long term (1985-1992) but also envisages the socio-economic conditions of Senegal in the year 2015. They are characterized by the following salient features:

• Economic and financial reform within the framework of a clearly defined medium term, coherent and planned policy;
• Planned adjustment to stimulate the productive dynamism of the country by addressing institutional bottlenecks.
• Growth of production on more solid foundations by harnessing human resources and by a policy of distributing revenue so as to encourage productive work, reward initiative and reduce regional disparities.
• Emphasis on the value of individual effort and collective autonomous organization, and on the development and support of agro-industrial innovation.

These historical and socio-economic conditions affecting science and technology policy have gove

rned the needs to be satisfied and the problems to be solved.

2.6.1.2 Development Policy and Science and Technology Policy

Since 1969 Senegal has proclaimed the objective of joining the ranks of the semi-industrialized countries by the year 2000 - the final year of the Ninth Development Plan. This arduous task could not be accomplished without taking into account elements of science and technology, the main engines of development.

Senegal also integrates into its development strategy an orientation of programmes and research projects towards the satisfaction of human needs by stressing the human dimension and the importance of the new information technology, which has gained momentum by the convergence of informatics and telecommunications.

2.6.2 . Informatics Development Policy

2.6.2.1 History of Informatics in Senegal

The first data processing configuration in Senegal was installed 1 August 1948 at the National Institute of Statistics and Economic Research (Institut National de Statistiques et d'Etudes Economiques, INSEE), a French organization for statistical and economic research in France and the Overseas Territories. The configuration, installed as an experiment comprised:

• wired boards,called tabulators;
• a printer;
• calculators;
• perforators (key punches);
• verifiers;
• collators (interpolators);

The main applications were for customs statistics and the processing of demographic census data from the former French West African countries.

The data processing of the civil service payroll was achieved only in 1953, when the centre was transferred to the Administrative Building, headquarters of the French West African Government.

After INSEE it was the turn of the Senegalese State Railway Company to acquire conventional data processing machines.

The slide from data processing into informatics was manifested by the gradual substitution of computers for conventional data processors. The introduction of computers into public administration and into the banking sector led to the automation of accounting procedures and payrolls. Thus the Ministry of Finance and the National Development Bank of Senegal, with the assistance of the International Company for Business Organization (Société Internationale d'Organisation), a French company offering information technology services, provided a plan for computer hardware and various applications in accounting etc.

At the Ministry of Finance the centre then called André Peytavin Accounting Centre (Centre Comptable André Peytavin) gradually developed applications for Payroll, Taxation, Customs, management of files of expenditure on equipment, housing etc. This evolution in the number and variety of applications was parallelled by a swift development in hardware.

A similar development took place at the Centre for Public Institutions (Centre des Etablissements Publics), the second government computer centre, with similar hardware and staffed mainly by technical assistants from SINORG. A result of these activities was on the job training of the first Senegalese programmers as from 1967/68.

Several years later the private sector felt the urgent need to flirt with computers, so as not to miss the second technological revolution. Companies such as SENELEC, Fiduciaire, SONNEES, as well as banks, insurance companies and other industries acquired high performance computers and gradually came to establish their own computer centres.

It would seem that, until 1970, the Senegalese informatics environment was based on large systems located in a few government centres and in the parastatal sector. it is at this time that the big computer manufacturers such as IBM, Bull, Burroughs, which became UNISYS, established themselves in Senegal.

The 1980s decade, noted for the micro-computer explosion, saw the advent of numerous computer services companies and training schools. The first micro-computers appeared in Senegal in 1981 and used the CPM operating system. The establishment, in 1987, of the Office for Computer Development (Délégation à l'Informatique, DINFO) facilitated the strategic development of informatics. The following important projects were launched:

• Land Taxation Survey aimed at increasing the rate of recovery of land tax by a quantitative and qualitative improvement in output and in the system of distributing tax notifications;
• Automation of personnel administration, with the aim of managing automatically in a single file the pay, administrative, and current management decisions relating to staff of user ministries;
• Automation and archiving on optical numeric disk, of data held by the Registrar General;
• Automated management of customs transactions, dealing with customs clearance and manifests.

This information technology explosion took place in the public, parastatal and private sectors, and resulted in the installation of a host of automatic dispensers and widespread office automation.

In the current context of government modernisation a number of projects aim at the improvement and better use of communications technology, namely:

• The inter-departmental network of communication channels and data;
• National Network of Scientific and Technical Information, a system of scientific and technical information exchange and dissemination. Its development led to the creation of data bases in the fields of agriculture, industry, trade, transport and administration;
• Videotex applications in certain ministries on an experimental basis (Tourism, Justice, Education etc.);

The total complement of computers in Senegal today is estimated at one thousand minis and mainframes, and 12,000 micros. Growth is very rapid and is estimated at 2500 units a year. (See Annex B for the results of research on the informatics potential)

2.6.2.1.b) Informatics Policy

2.6.2.1.1 Cornerstones of Internal Policy

Although national action on computerization goes back to the beginnings of independence, the crucial year was 1972, when the National Informatics Committee was formed. It was responsible for formulating and coordinating national policy. Internally this policy produced various plans and standards; externally it led to active participation in various organizations and committees at continental and international levels.

The following cornerstones of internal policy will be examined in turn:

• Automation of the main functions of government;
• Education and training;
• Promotion of indigenous computer services companies;
• Promotion and management of government informatics personnel;
• Promotion of informatics in development sectors;
• Definition of strategic aims in the parastatal sector;
• Enactment of legislation on informatics.

a) Automation of the main functions of government

Informatics, if only used as an auxiliary to administrative procedures, risks being downgraded and deprived of its incomparable role as a management tool. Administration of development implies that the Government does not confine itself to sound financial management of the public and parastatal sectors, but accepts responsibility for the most fundamental functions necessary for development.

In response to this concern the government initiated an Informatics Master Plan in 1979, which, in its first phase, analyzed the then existing Senegalese information system. The analytical method consisted of a break down of the system into sub-systems and groups of entities, such as:

• Ground,superstructure and networks
• Individuals and corporate bodies
• Goods and services
• Science and technology

For each group the following aspects were considered:

• Characteristics
• Duties of the administration
• Management practices
• Nodes (agencies)

The second phase was devoted to the establishment of an administrative data bank, by integrating the results of computerizing the functions mentioned above. The objectives of the data bank were, among others:

• Development of a governmental systems chart;
• Development of a systems chart for public enterprises;
• Provision for users from all sectors information and data of which they were previously unaware;

Among the projects implemented under the 1979 Master Plan were:

The informatics component of the National Land Management Plan and the updating of village files;

Development of the files on individuals and computerization of national identity cards.

b) Education and training

The October 1985 meeting of the National Informatics Committee took note of the activities undertaken in this field and prepared the ground for future policy. Action was anticipated in the following areas:

• Research;
• Professional education;
• Continuing education;
• Popularization of informatics.

In terms of research there was a project to launch an Institute of Applied Mathematics and Informatics with the following mission:

• To promote the transfer of knowledge and skills in applied informatics to the socio-economic sectors;
• To experiment with new applications to meet the specific needs of the country's social and economic development.
• To train Senegalese information scientists in advanced techniques by means of courses, colloquia, seminars, study tours etc;
• To participate in a worldwide network of centres of information technology, facilitating the exchange and dissemination of experience.
• To keep up with developments in informatics throughout the world by the establishment of a documentation centre on the main areas of informatics research and applications.

Unfortunately this university level institute did not materialize. However, its mission was in part achieved, as will be seen later, by the introduction of a Master's degree in informatics and later of a Diploma of Advanced Studies (Diplôme d'Etudes Approfondies, DEA)

With regard to professional education the following steps were taken:

• Opening of an engineering programme at the National University of Technology (Ecole Nationale Supérieure Universitaire de Technologie, ENSUT) in 1988/89.
• Establishment of an Informatics Master's degree course and of a DEA in Informatics at the Faculty of Sciences of the Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar.
• Opening in 1990 of the University of Saint-Louis, wherea Department of Informatics and Applied Mathematics was established.

Several centres provide training. At the Ministry of Economy and Finance there is a centre in the Department of Automation of Information, another at the African Centre for Higher Education in Management, and another at ENSUT, the main institution for initial computer training. In addition there are a few private schools which offer informatics training for programmers and program analysts.

The following initiatives were taken to increase awareness of informatics:

• To standardize informatics education, modules were introduced into the courses of higher education institutions.
• The use of computers and the Logo language was extended as a teaching tool in elementary, middle and secondary school. This initiative led to the Project for the Introduction of Informatics into the Educational System (Projet d'Introduction de l'Informatique dans le Syustème Educatif, PIISE)
• Launching of an operation named "200 microcpmputers" intended to be a plan to provide computers for secondary schools and colleges.

c) Promotion of indigenous computer services and consultancy companies

A policy was considered necessary because this type of company was believed to be an important catalyst for computerization, for the emergence of indigenous expertise and for the transfer of technology. The following measures were taken in October 1985:

• In the new Investment Code the informatics sector was given priority status.
• Government contracts were regulated to guarantee widespread access to indigenous computer services companies.

d) Promotion and conditions of service of government informatics personnel

The components of informatics policy mentioned above can be implemented only if the Government has at its disposal a significant body of experts who can be entrusted, on the one hand, with carrying out the applications and, on the other, with leading advocacy and coordination missions. This presupposes an adequate staffing structure for government informatics personnel. A first step was taken in 1980 when recruitment, pay and conditions of service for such workers were laid down. Further measures are under consideration, whose main purpose is:

• to ensure more rigorous management of government and agency informatics personnel by a detailed and thorough definition of the competence, experience and responsibilities of each employee, according to his grade.
• to ensure centralised control of government and agency informatics organs so as to guarantee a match between the skills required for a task and the qualifications of the person performing it.

e) Strategic policy stones for the parastatal sector

The Government has for some years been carrying out a policy of reform of the parastatal sector by withdrawing progressively from certain activities. Relations between Government and enterprises are to be governed by contract, where this is not already the case. Management is to be given increased authority and greater autonomy. Accordingly, while no longer involving itself in the internal management of enterprises, the Government retains the means of regular a posteriori control.

Intervention has been mainly at the behest of the enterprises themselves, for technical assistance in whatever area is required, notably when management and informatics play and essential role. The current reform has an important informatics aspect, the aims of which correspond to those of the reform as a whole, namely:

• Strengthening the autonomy of enterprises;
• A posteriori control of the parastatal sector;
• Government technical assistance for parastatal enterprises in management and informatics.

The strategic guidelines which emerge in this sector are based on the master plans of all enterprises wishing to computerize, with the endorsement and advice of the agency responsible for informatics policy at national level.

f) Examination of legislation on informatics.

At the time this study was conducted there had as yet been no action in this area. Annexes C and D offer an outline of what a policy on legislation might contain.

2.6.2.1.2 Cornerstones of Regional and International Cooperation

Senegal has always maintained a policy of active regional and international cooperation, as can be seen from the following initiatives:

• Participation in the establishment, in 1971, of the African Informatics Institute (Institut African d'Informatique, IAI) at Libreville, in the context of OCAM (Organisation Commune Africaine et Malgache). This Institute, which at first trained only program analysts, launched a computer engineering course three years ago;

• Membership, since 1975, of the Intergovernmental Bureau for Informatics (Bureau Intergouvernemental pour l'Informatique, IBI). Until its dissolution in 1987, Senegal hosted the Regional Francophone Africa Centre of this organization;
• Within the framework of IBI Senegal participated in the first Intergovernmental Conference on Strategies and Policies on Informatics (SPIN I) held at Toremolinos (Spain) in 1978, and in 1982 Dakar hosted the regional meeting of sub-Saharan countries in preparation for SPIN 83;
• Participation in the establishment, in 1985, at Yamoussoukro (Côte d'Ivoire), of a group by that name. The group comprises representatives of Benin, Ghana, Tanzania, Gabon, Madagascar, Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire, as well as aid organizations (IBI).The main aim of this group is to contribute to the implementation of the Lagos Plan of Action by working out a strategy for the use of information and telecommunication technologies;
• Senegal played a key role in the implementation of the RINAF Project for linking African academic institutions, which was initiated in Dakar in 1992, with the participation of some twenty countries, under the aegis of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Informatics Programme;

• Lastly, Senegal participates in the network of the Centre for the Exchange of Computerized Data for Investment, Trade and Technology, established within the framework of the Group of 15 (G15), with headquarters at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Thus, at the summit meeting of Heads of State and Government of the G15 member states held in Dakar in 1992, Senegal demonstrated to the Heads of State off-site interrogation of data banks and bases. Thanks to its potential in informatics and its modern telecommunications infrastructure Senegal is already in the position of a privileged partner in the field of information exchange.

2.6.2.2 Computerization Agencies

Included here are the agencies involved in the use of informatics: coordination, advocacy, education and training, development of applications and processing, provision of equipment and technical support.

2.6.2.2.1 Coordination and Promotion

The National Informatics Committee (Comité National Informatique, CNI), established in 1972, is the main agency for coordination and promotion of informatics in Senegal. The CNI is responsible for the coordinated development of informatics policy mentioned above. Until 1985, the date of the last meeting, the chairmanship of the CNI was provided by the General Secretariat of the Presidency of the Republic.

The Organization and Methods Bureau (Bureau Organisation et Méthodes, BOM) of the Presidency of the Republic provided the permanent secretariat of the CNI. Its main executive organ was the Department of Automatic Data Processing of Information (Direction du Traitement Automatique de l'Information, DTAI) of the Ministry of Economy and Finance. With the disappearance of BOM and the establishment, in 1987, of DINFO, informatics policy and computerisation were transferred to this agency, whose advent constitutes a qualitative improvement in the management of the socio-economic programme of Senegal.

2.6.2.2.2 Training, Education and Research

Until 1990 the only government education agency was the above-mentioned ENSUT, which trains program analysts to the level of a University Diploma in Technology (Diplôme Universitaire en Technologie, DUT). As already noted, other informatics courses are in operation at Senegal's two universities.

The vast majority of high level professionals are trained abroad, mainly in France and at the IAI in Libreville (see Human Potential in Annex B). It should, however, be noted that the CNI had in the past organized special training courses for engineers within DTAI; some ten engineers were thus trained in two batches in 1975 and 1980.

Research is at present non-existent. This situation is likely to change as a result of the ENSUT and University of Dakar engineering programmes.

2.6.2.2.3 Data Processing or Computer Centres

The main centres are government run and comprise:

• DTAI. This is by far the most important centre. Its computer resources and human potential make it one of the foremost centres in Africa.
• Department of Computerization of Files (Direction de l'Automatisation de Fichiers, DAF) of the Ministry of Interior
• Customs Centre, which houses the most powerful government computers. The operating systems of the DTAI and Customs are to be upgraded from MVS/SP to MVS/ESA.
• National Centre for Scientific and Technical Documentation (Centre National de Documentation Scientifique et Technique, CNDST) also the national focal point of international networks of information exchange.
• Dakar-Thiaroye Centre for Oceanographic Research (Centre de Recherche Océanographique de Dakar-Thiaroye, CRODT). This is the main focus of development of informatics research, in cooperation with the French Institute for Aid to Scientific Research (Institut Français de la Recherche Scientifique en Coopération, ORSTOM)

2.6.2.2.4 Suppliers of Computer Equipment
Representatives of the main computer and microcomputer manufacturers operate in Senegal,

having done so for several decades. There are about fifteen of them, beside some dealers. They sell their very latest products, which are installed without difficulty and come into operation in Senegal at the same time as elsewhere in the world.

• 1980: Installation of the IBM 43XX at the National Development Bank of Senegal;
• 1982: Operation of the IBM MVS system at the DTAI, the first of its kind in Africa;
• 1985: Installation of Bull microprocessor application cards for the automation of customs procedures;

• 1990: Operation of the RISC 6000 IBM within the framework of the project for a National Network of Scientific and Technical Information (Réseau National d'Information Scientifique et Technique, RNIST).

2.6.2.2.5 Computer services bureaux and consultancy services

ong>(Sociétes de Services et de Conseil en Informatique, SSCI)
A study undertaken in 1990 for DINFO, revealed the following information:

• About 15 companies active in this sector have a local base.
• Others, without a local base, operate on the basis of contracts, sometimes in association with local companies

• These companies offer the following services:

• Data processing based on machine hours
• Implementaion of applications
• Consultancy
• Education and training

2.6.2.2.6 Computer Associations and Clubs
Most of these subscribe to the same objectives, namely:

• Raising awareness of informatics
• User education
• Technological development and keeping a watching brief on the state-of-the-art.

Among the most active of these are:

• Association of Microcomputer Clubs of Senegal;
• Association of Alumni of IAI;
• Association of Alumni of ENSUT;
• Youth Association for the Development of Informatics in Senegal.

2.6.2.3 Information Technology Applications
At the national level applications can be considered under three headings

• Management
• Scientific research
• Technical applications

2.6.2.3.1 Management
This is the most developed area, not only in our country. Such applications can be found in the

ic, parastatal and private sectors. In the parastatal and private sectors, applications are the standard ones, of no special complexity: accounting, payroll, invoicing, stock management.

The most significant and complex applications occur in the government sector. They draw from a ety of management information systems to examine specific management situations. This is done in the main administrative centre.

In the parastatal sector there are servers which use conventional management applications, with the NOVELL network. The present tendency is to move towards the UNIX operating system and the management systems of relational data bases.

Among the major users of management applications are the Ministry of Economy and Finance and the Ministry of Interior.

2.6..3.2 Scientific Research

The main user of this type of application is the Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research (ISRA), with its various centres and aid agencies such as ORSTOM and PIISE.

Among other major users are CRODT, the Bambey Centre for Agronomic Research, (CNRA), and the National Cattle Breeding and Veterinary Research Centre.

2.6.2.3.3 Technical Applications

By technical informatics is meant applications used in developing other techniques. This includes applications in teledetection, meteorology, energy and water management.

2.6.2.4 Funding of Information Technology

The Government is the principal informatics consumer and the main source of funds in this sector. However the resources allocated by the Government are meagre and there is a dearth of external assistance.

At national level there are two sources of finance for informatics projects: The Fund for the Encouragement of Scientific and Technical Research (FIRST), and the investment budget through the Triennial Programme of Public Investment (PTIP).

2.6.2.4.1 FIRST

FIRST's objectives are:

• To encourage basic and applied research;
• To support Senegalese scientific and technical institutions which follow programmes geared to socio-economic development, or to improving technology;
• To provide material and financial help to research units and institutions in such areas as agriculture and food technology;
• To disseminate and make use of research results;
• To create awareness of technological innovation;

FIRST's resources stem mainly from credits in the national budget to the tune of 100 million cfa francs a year. Since 1982 about 15 million have been allocated to informatics and education. This seems insufficient in relation to FIRST's objectives, but is justified in that there is practically no informatics research in Senegal.

2.6.2.4.2 PTIP

As a result of the economic crisis of the 1970s the Government introduced a structural adjustment programme. Economic policy was directed towards increasing the efficiency of a free market economy and ensuring that resources were directed to the most productive sector and to the most promising investments.

National planning policy was based on two instruments:

• A prognostic study spanning one generation, commenting retrospectively on Senegalese society 1960-1988, and looking ahead to the year 2015;
• A medium term socio-economic plan, setting out a six year strategy, to be reviewed after three years.

PTIP is the means of developing project programming in conformity with the strategies laid down in the National Development Plan.

Since 1989, when PTIP was established, the informatics sector has benefited from a cumulative total of 541 million francs cfa out of an investment budget of about 33 billion.

For information, when the National Informatics Committee was formed, the informatics budget was fixed at 1% of the national budget.

2.6.3 Analysis of the Present Situation

The informatics situation in Senegal shows clearly that the constraints which hinder the coordinated development of information technology are closely linked to the current economic milieu of the country and to the transfer of technology by means of the following instruments of computerization:

• Informatics policy and its development plan;
• The coordinating mechanisms of information policy;
• Promotion mechanisms;
• Research, education and training mechanisms;
• Computer engineering companies;

As for human resources, ENSUT is the main institution providing education and training. Whereas until 1988 only program analysts were trained, subsequently computer engineering education was introduced. High level specialists are now educated at Saint-Louis and Dakar universities.

Meagre financial resources are made available through FIRST and PTIP. External funding is weak and is limited to microcomputer equipment and some training.

Only a few computer services and consultancy companies are in business, and these are often not familiar with the latest technology. Prior research is often skimped.

In the parastatal sector anarchy prevails. There are often poor outcomes because the directing agency of informatics policy responsible for advising such enterprises is not aware of their plans of action.

A further problem is maintenance. Equipment obtained through foreign aid, such as Commodity Aid, for the universities and ministries, has no provision for maintenance contracts beyond the normal equipment guarantee period, or that of the aid project.

In all, an analysis of the informatics scientific and technical potential reveals structural deficiencies, considerable human potential, but weakness at the higher levels, and almost non-existent funding.

The programme developing at DINFO is likely to stimulate the country's progress in informatics.

2.6.3.1 Informatics in the Parastatal Sector

Consultations among DINFO, the former General Commissariat of the Parastatal Sector and representatives of the enterprises themselves have led to their classification into three groups:

• Enterprises unable to bear the costs of computerization on their own;
• Non-computerized enterprises which are able to mange the costs of their own computerization;
• Enterprises which are already computerized, or are in process of computerization.

For the first group a service and operating centre dedicated to the parastatal sector should be established; for the second, an autonomous informatics centre is needed; for the third, there should be a permanent adaptation of information technology to the real and evolving needs of the enterprise.

Some enterprises have gone ahead with investments in computer technology without consulting DINFO, or ignoring its advice, with dire consequences.

To conclude, investment had not been very profitable: costs have been exorbitant and computerization has miscarried or been inadequate.

2.6.3.2 Human Resources

As noted above, until 1990 ENSUT was the main training institution. Courses at the two universities are undoubtedly now contributing to the pool of information workers.

However, despite the quality of the training given, there is not, as yet, enough emphasis on research. High level computer engineers do not find enough scope for the kind of work for which they are qualified. It is hoped that an eventual doctorate programme (Doctorat du 3ème cycle) at Dakar University will encourage research.

Government is presently the main employer of information workers. However, there have been many resignations as staff have been attracted by higher salaries in the private sector. In 1985 the Government responded by offering better pay and conditions to such personnel, and further improvements are under consideration.

The Government is also studying ways of encouraging the standardization of courses offered by private institutions. A Higher Technician Diploma (Brevet de Technicien Supérieur, BTS) is at the planning stages.

2.6.3.3 Computer Services and Consultancy Companies

Because of an open door policy towards foreign companies there is no institutional method of monitoring the volume and nature of foreign investments in Senegal. However, because of the strategic nature of information technology the Government has taken the following decisions in support of indigenous computer services companies:

• Revision of investment criteria, giving priority status to information technology.
• Regulation of government contracts to allow local companies better access.

It would appear that managers of SSCI2.6.2.2.42.6.2.2s consider that these measures, praiseworthy and justified though they are, have not achieved the desired results, for the following reasons:

• The measures promulgated in support of SSCIs were never implemented;
• Informatics are considered luxury products, hence hardware, software and registration fees are heavily taxed. (Hardware is taxed at 100%)

One of the main complaints of the SSCIs concerns the manner in which government contracts are awarded, especially the required deposit, fixed at 5 million cfa francs, and the delay in reimbursing companies which made unsuccessful bids.

Furthermore invoices due to SSCIs are not promptly paid, and their obligations to banks are not respected if it is a matter of government commitments.

The informatics business is valued at several billion francs cfa a year. Apart from the public sector, the main clients are banks and financial companies. These are mostly subsidiaries of foreign, mainly French firms, which bring in French SSCIs for the computerization of their Senegalese subsidiaries.

The situation does not encourage the emergence of indigenous SSCIs, especially in the current economic climate. There is a noticeable decline in their number, characterized by defaulting on payments, leading inevitably to company closures.

We believe that the SSCIs, in the context of a developing country and taking into account the emergence of new information technology, constitute an essential channel for the transfer of technology. Particular attention should therefore be paid to them.

2.6.4 General Guidelines

Today, when we have arrived at the apex of the era of industrial technology, we are on the threshold of a veritable post-industrial revolution under the powerful impact of informatics and biotechnology.

Mastery of the new computer based technology becomes a necessity if Senegal is not to remain a permanent consumer of technology, having a negative impact on the country's balance of payments.

Ever more sophisticated and specific techniques enable us to introduce information technology into most sectors of activity, especially:

• Telematics and data bases for management
• Computer assisted design techniques (XAO)
• Artificial intelligence applications with expert systems in medicine, agriculture, etc.

The emergence of XAO artificial intelligence techniques seem to us to be the most significant phenomenon since the invention of computers.

In view of the inevitability of computerization of today's companies, Senegal should direct all efforts to the acquisition and use of information technology by means of technology transfer.

It is obvious, in this context, that information policy in Senegal should be directed towards mastery of the various factors linked to technology transfer.

The strategic pillars of the overall policy should be:

1. Education of high level specialists, and hence the establishment of a teaching and research institution such as the Informatics and Applied Mathematics Research Institute, which never saw the light of day;

2. Strengthening and extension of PIISE;

3. Promotion of expert systems in medicine, agriculture and new and renewable energy;

4. Definition of a new policy of assistance to indigenous computer services and engineering companies. Such assistance should be in contractual form to ensure that:

• The activities of these companies encourage the emergence of local expertise;
• This expertise is directed towards the mastery of the new information technology (telematics, networks, relational data bases, various methodologies etc.)

Concerning the parastatal sector in particular, a sector which is crucial for the economy, and to put an end to wasted expenditure on computerization, the following measures could be considered:

• Strengthening or confirmation of the regulatory mechanisms which confer certain prerogatives on DINFO;
• Association of technical ministries such as the Ministry of Modernization and Technology with the boards of directors of major public enterprises;
• Establishment of a Centre for Computer Services and Development for wages and accountancy, exclusively dedicated to the parastatal sector;
• Establishment of a Steering Committee to coordinate the converging activities of the DINFO and the organism responsible for the reform of the parastatal sector.

2.6.5 Evaluation of the Instruments of Informatics Policy

2.6.5.1 National Informatics Committee (CNI)

Since its establishment, the CNI has been the main instrument of regulation and monitoring of informatics policy. Its duties were:

• To formulate information technology, management and network policy and strategy and to coordinate projects and their implementation. To this end:
• To define the framework within which computerization progresses in government and parastatal institutions; to monitor the coherence of information systems and decide priorities and the allocation of resources of all kinds and origins; to approve programmes for equipment and informatics services of government and parastatal organisms;

• To take measures to promote and oversee the development of informatics in the economy and in society;
• To monitor the development of human resources in informatics.

The Chairperson of the CNI is the Secretary General of the Presidency of the Republic and its members are the Ministers of Economy and Finance, Planning and Foreign Assistance, Communications, the Civil Service and Labour. Heads of academic institutions and informatics centres may be invited to attend meetings.

The following are major decisions or measures promulgated by the CNI:

• Definition of a framework for development of indigenous computer services and consultancy companies;
• Upgrading of career prospects of informatics personnel;
• Refurbishment of the government information technology park;
• Pegging the informatics budget to 1% of the national budget.

The CNI, until its last meeting in 1985, carried out its role satisfactorily. However, in some cases its decisions did not lead to concrete action. This was the case with measures taken to help indigenous SSCIs, in difficulties because of the economic climate.

Furthermore, unfortunately the CNI has not met since 1985. The time since then has no doubt been used to consider how to increase the effectiveness of the national informatics policy. The establishment of DINFO in 1987 was one step in this direction.

2.6.5.2 Office for Computer Development (Delegation a l'informatique, DINFO)

DINFO, established in 1987, is an inter-departmental service attached to the General Secretariat of the Presidency. The Head of DINFO presents to the President an annual report on the informatics situation in the country. DINFO's principal function is to formulate information policy, and after approval, to implement it. (See in Annex A the terms of reference and organization of DINFO)

2.6.5.2.1 Projects in Progress

National Network of Scientific and Technical Information (Réseau National d'Information Scientifique et Technique, RNIST)

RNIST aims to provide Senegal with a vast automated network for the collection, processing and dissemination of scientific and technical information.

A partially decentralised architecture has been adopted, built on a meshed network around a central server housed at the National Centre for Scientific and Technical Documentation (CNDST). It is intended to put at the disposal of the general public multidisciplinary data banks, conceived and developed in tandem with existing sectoral networks corresponding to priority areas of the economy.

Project for the Introduction of Informatics into the Educational System (Projet d'Indroduction de l'Informatique dans le Système Educatif, PIISE).

PIISE's aims are:

• To be a catalyst for innovation in education at all levels, through research and development of computer teaching aids;
• To train trainers in the use of microcomputers for computer assisted learning;
• To evaluate courseware according to an evaluation grid to be tailored to Senegalese requiements;

• To establish computer education programmes;

• To control the process of introducing information technology into the educational system.

Inter-ministerial Network of Voice and Data (Réseau Inter-administratif de Voix et Données

The main objective of the Private Inter-departmental Communications Network (Réseau Privé de Télécommunications Inter-Administratif) is to improve inter-departmental communications at no additional cost. The aim is to offer all government agencies a dedicated system of telecommunications with good traffic flow. It should also improve the availability of public lines of telecommunication, allowing users faster access to government offices.

This network will be a communications tool offering an electronic message system and access to data bases. The topology is articulated round a central node situated at the seat of Government, to which five secondary centres will be connected.

Civil registry and modernisation of the great State registers

Some government agencies are the custodians of important information which must be permanently stored. This applies to the Registry of Births, Marriages and Deaths, and the Land Registry. These have, over time, accumulated a gnificant body of information in paper format.

To preserve this rich resource, which is fast deteriorating, as a relult of heavy use and the vagaries of climate, DINFO is taking advantage of the new information technology to initiate a major project of electronic archiving on optical numeric disk at the Rufisque Civil Registry Office. This experimental project falls within the framework of modernization of the great registers of State. The objectives of this programme are:

• To halt the degradation of State registers;
• To improve the quality of public service;
• To make better use of staff time.

This project is of interest also to planners in other branches of Government who hold vast quantities of documents and face problems of preservation and exploitation.

With promising results emerging from Rufisque it is intended to consolidate by exploiting the holdings in practice at the counter. It is hoped to raise the project to national level, providing all provincial capitals with a computerised centre of civil registration and by providing the National Registry with a system enabling it to centralise all civil status data.

Land Taxation Register

In the context of the policy to improve mechanisms for the mobilization of resources, Senegal has for some years been pursuing an extensive programme to establish a Land Taxation Register intended to improve considerably the land tax base and tax retrieval.

Modern methods are being used to establish the base. These range from aerial photography to representation in digital format, by way of ground surveys, dimensional models,and mailing. It should eventually bring about a quantitative and qualitative improvement in procedures and thence in tax receipts. With this tool local authorities will be able to:

• Obtain a more comprehensive census of properties;
• Determine the composition of areas and evaluate them;
• Identify exactly the person responsible for the tax.

Preservation and appreciation of the cultural heritage

This project aims to preserve and increase appreciation of the value of ancient documents, in view of the massive documentary deposits preserved under difficult conditions by the Research Institute of Black Africa (Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire, IFAN) and the National Archives, institutions which previously held a sub-regional brief. A centre for conservation, dissemination and consultation, using the new technology, would enable academic staff and research workers from Senegal and other former AOF countries to have easier access to their common heritage.

Optic technology has opened the way to computer facilities of enormous capacity and longer life span. Faced with the need for mass archiving and conservation, and given the slow access afforded by present means, as well as the alarming rate of deterioration of paper records, new solutions have been devised. They integrate information technology, digitalization, and the optical numeric disk. These new technologies, along with the development of telecommunications networks, augur well for the future. The pilot scanning experiment of the civil register gave convincing results, exceeding all expectations.

2.6.5.2.2 International Cooperation Projects

RINAF

The Network for the Exchange of Information among Institutions in Africa (Réseau d'Echanges entre Institutions en Afrique) aims to help African countries to overcome obstacles to the flow of scientific, technical, economic and cultural information. It will promote exchanges among universities, research institutes etc., by inter-computer communication. Priority is to be given to existing data networks by developing communication interfaces. There are to be five African regional nodes: North, West, Central, East and South, the regional nodes being located respectively in Algeria, Senegal, Nigeria, Kenya and Zimbabwe.

SITTDEC

The Centre for the Exchange of Computerized Data on Investment, Trade and Technology (Centre d'Echange de Données Informatisées en Matière d'Investissement, de Commerce et de Technologie), aims to promote economic development in the South.

The main objectives are:

• To provide an information data base and information services on the economic climate, markets, products, research results, essential resources, organizations and other data needed for investment, trade and technology in G15 member countries;
• To provide negotiated access to relevant data from other countries;
• To promote the use of an information system for exchanges between member countries of SITTDEC by providing technical assistance, training and consultancy services;
• To organize exchange of experience programmes on the use of information systems through seminars etc;
• To provide expert consultancy services to member countries in cooperation with national correspondents, which are organizations designated by Governments, and are responsible for the collection and dissemination of the relevant information.

The central site of the information network is in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The focal point in Senegal is the National Society for Industrial Research and Promotion (Société Nationale d'Etudes et de Promotion Insdustrielle, SONEPI).

SITTDEC is an opening to the outside world of RNIST, which is being established, and jointly steered by DINFO and CNDST.

Senegal thus makes a considerable technical contribution to SITTDEC, because of the convergence of its objectives with those of CNDST. Senegal will be able to access, in real time, data bases situated in any G15 country.

Because appropriate technological choices have been made, Senegal is able to tap external markets within and outside SITTDEC to promote the services of the country's computer engineering and telecommunication companies.

2.6.5.2.3 Promotion of New Services

Gateway Project

A "Gateway" is a centre of advanced telecommunications used for the exploitation of information processing services. It attracts customers because of low charges and high quality service, and suppliers by the opening it provides to the outside world. This "open door" for exports has been made possible by the designation of a reliable specialized communications zone which is cheap in the exporting country. The gateway must satisfy commercial ends, measurable in terms of jobs created, foreign currency earned and technology transferred.

The advantages of Senegal with regard to this project are its key geographical location for contacts between Africa and America, and its connections with the whole of West Africa. With its efficient telecommunications infrastructure, considered among the best in Africa, Senegal should be able to play a pioneering role in the computer services trade on the African continent.

This project is still at the preliminary, market research stage. Integrated in the services offered by the Dakar Technopole (see below), the "Gateway" should be useful for Senegalese computer services companies, which wouldfind,through it, a way of exploiting their capabilities in an international setting, accessible because of the extraordinary advances of telecommunications.

Technopole Project

The Dakar Technopole Project aims to create and organize an economic space where the speculative intelligence of the designer can come face to face with the practical intelligence of the entrepreneur. This new economic institution will participate in the development of a dynamic private sector by creating an economic and technological environment oriented towards creativity, innovation and the creation of wealth, leading to stable employment.

The activities of the Technopole will be of four kinds:

• An agro-food complex;
• An environment and energy complex;
• A complex for service and animation;
• A telecommunications and information technology complex, comprising a telecommunications centre, the Telecommunications Ecole Supérieure, and the Gateway Project, in connection with the establishment of an advanced telecommunications zone.

Conclusion

In general, there is an impressive degree of computerisation in the public, parastatal and private sectors. The establishment of DINFO, under whose aegis the above-mentioned projects were implemented, demonstrates the correctness of the political choices and options which led to its establishment, and justifies the role it plays in providing the impetus for, and more efficient coordination of, informatics activities.

Difficulties engendered by proposed or programmed activities have arisen essentially from the scarcity and paucity of government resources, so that the wherewithal to carry out the planned policy is not always available.

Computer professionals are competent but few in number; research and education institutions are limited or non-existent. Computer services bureaux and consultancy services are of a high standard, but have insufficient state support. There are numerous distributors and the big equipment manufacturers have agencies or subsidiary branches in Senegal.

This dynamic situation has led, in the last few years, to the flowering of specialized informatics associations, which has enabled DINFO to refine its plan to raise user, especially young user. awareness of the advantages of the latest techniques.

2.6.6 Perspectives

2.6.6.1 Technology Transfer and Awareness of the State-of-the-art

The world is witnessing mutations unprecedented in the history of technological invention. These mutations, which have left their imprint on our era, are propelled by the double shock of informatics and telecommunications. New technologies have modified the process of production, shaken up educational systems and completely overturned people's cultural patterns and habits.

The world has become a global village without real frontiers where the phenomenon of globalization of culture and economy is taking shape. In this process, the technologically advanced countries exert their domination on other parts of the world. They tend to impose their way of life, and to fashion the behaviour and mentality of less advanced peoples, who take on the role of passive consumers of goods and products generated elsewhere.

The processes of industrial production, too, have undergone a profound revolution. The introduction of robots has changed standards of production, considerably increased productivity and output, and had affected the traditional norms of competitiveness. In the present economic system only those innovative businesses can survive, which constantly adapt to technological change. Today they must innovate or perish.

Yet another threat hangs over developing, and especially African countries, which used to obtained the bulk of their income from raw materials. New, composite materials, pose a serious threat to the future of minerals. This is so in the automobile and aircraft industries, in which composite materials and various alloys are progressively replacing steel and light metals.

In the agricultural sphere, the use of biotechnology, notably in vitro cultivation and micropropagation, makes it possible to produce, in record time, at relatively low cost, plants and stock which could be grown only with difficulty by more traditional methods of cloning.

In the service sector it is equally easy to observe the effectiveness and time saving which can be achieved by the introduction of the systems and technology of communication and transmission of data. In our era, noted for speed, slow managements are soon overtaken and see their efforts come to nothing. The road to high performance lies via modernization of the working tool.

In another area telemanagement and telesurveillance,thanks to Radar, provide, among other benefits, greater security for territory and territorial waters, making for easier control of smuggling.

On the field of culture, sound and image technologies using, for example, projections on curtains of water, or liquid ?azote are already operational.

In Senegal,"off shore" job creating activities are being considered, in combination with certain OECD countries, as a way of overcoming unemployment. The idea is to move, by means of existing networks, data capture and software development to countries in the South which have qualified information workers who are less expensive than in OECD countries. The private sector would need to organize itself to face competition from Asian countries. Senegal's trump card is to exploit its membership of the francophone community and to stress its proximity to European countries. The role of the Government would be to supervise the negotiation of the first contracts between private Senegalese information professionals and European customers.

It emerges from the preceding remarks that every country which wishes to advance must keep continuously in touch with technological developments and must adapt quickly to technological change. To achieve this it is necessary to set up an alerting system and to give development workers appropriate information and training. What is required is a research centre whose mission it would be to keep a watching brief on the most up to date information technology and to make it available to the information industry.

For all these reasons, information technology today constitutes as essential a factor of production as capital, labour, energy, raw materials or industrial equipment. It is the "sixth sense" of successful businesses and modern states.

2.6.6.2 the New Information Technology: Opportunities for Senegal

The scientific and technical revolution of the late 20th century presages the development of new scientific and technological activities. Recent times have witnessed a gradual coming together and interpenetration of the technology of informatics, telecommunication, space and audiovisual media.

This profound and fast transfer of technology and working practices has resulted in a progressive enlargement of fields of application. New products and services have made their appearance, such as Videotex, telematics, data banks, new media such as fibre optics, satellite links, new public and business networks, new techniques such as software engineering, expert systems or artificial intelligence.

Conscious of what is at stake for development, Senegal, in imitation of developed countries has staked its future on mastery of the new technology as an engine of efficiency and generator of added value.

Informatics and telecommunications occupy a strategic place which confers on the countries which master them pride of place in the concert of nations.

The information technology explosion which Senegal is presently undergoing, has enabled it to establish a policy which should support, guide and stimulate the informatics and telecommunications sectors within all areas of development.

2.6.6.2.1 Integration of Hardware Systems

The components market offers powerful, modular and standardized products: storage, microprocessors, auxiliary storage, peripherals. Many innovations in informatics and telecommunications are based on concepts of integration of systems: designers stock basic building blocks and then construct their computers like architects.

A country like Senegal, having well trained entrepreneurs, up to date with the latest techniques, can offer them commercial outlets at least within its own borders, if not in the sub-region, or even in the whole of sub-Saharan Africa. The starting capital needs are modest and the Senegalese banking system should be able to meet these, accepting normal risk factors.

The areas where these Senegalese integrators of systems could operate touch upon:

• Traditional autonomous microprocessing (seeking dedicated outlets, especially in Africa. Some market research, however crude, is a sine qua non.)
• Distributed and communicating microprocessing: integration of processing power (possibly already present in the form of operational microprocessors) and communications power (by network switching, by a dedicated national network, or by dedicated lines) could give concrete shape to a client-server model so far little explored.
• Machines at the cross-roads between microprocessing and telecommunications: all the big manufacturers - Japanese, American, European - are currently carrying out research on PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants).

Held in the palm of the hand like a calculator, these are at the same time a diary, an electronic notebook, a mobile telephone, cellular or other, a fax unit and a remote terminal computer. A programming language to be called Telescript,is about to emerge.

Without, of course, attempting to compete with the giants such as NEC, there are surely sub-areas (assembly, specialization, adaptation to overcome local constraints, programming of special functions) where a Senegalese entrepreneur (or several, though the market is not infinitely expandable) could find a way of exercising his or her skills.

Some manufacturers such as ATT speak in terms of the presence of one billion personal communicators in the world today. Senegal should be able to take up a position among active operators, not among passive users.

2.6.6.2.2 Development of Software and Telecommunications

The growth of new programming aids, software engineering houses, object-oriented programming languages, languages using statement programming languages instead of procedural ones, programming by assembly of pre-existing modules - all these could give rise to developers of software of a new breed, who have more in common with integrators of hardware than with conventional programmers.

De facto or voluntary standardization of information technology and telecommunications offers a very wide field of applications to young experts who may be well trained but lack experience.

The field of applied information technology is vast enough, especially if one includes digital telecommunications, for areas to be uncovered, which have been abandoned by the giant western companies. If India has become the third biggest producer of software in the world it must be that there are strata of applications as yet unexplored.

Here, too, serious market research of international proportions is essential. What is really known about Africa's software needs? It would be a mistake to aim at traditional applications already well covered, such as accountancy, wages, stocks and shares, files of customers and suppliers and automatic documentation.

Transport, agriculture, fishing, education, national and vernacular languages, local, village and family organization, demography, migration - all the elements of African social life could be examined with a view to their potential for exploitation by the new technologies.

2.6.6.2.3 Teleworking and Remote Services

As costs of data processing and communications fall, the costs of human expertise take on enormous importance in calculations of the final net cost of products based on informatics or telecommunications.

For some years the idea of taking advantage of the low cost of labour of countries such as the African ones, so as to offer cheaper services to developed countries, has made its way in the information field in the same way as, earlier, it had in traditional production.

This presupposes that transmission of the final product to the client is no hindrance, hence the need to look critically at transmission costs.

On this assumption, remote services, (an international extension of teleworking, which is fashionable nowadays in Europe and America), offer a whole range of possibilities:

• * Large scale data capture of conventional documents (forms, questionnaires etc.) There is a great demand for data capture of questionnaires arising from market research, opinion polls etc.;
• * Aided capture of massive analog data in digitized form: the classic examples are land registration or architectural plans, old topographical and geographical surveys, where a complex drawing must be transformed into digitized coordinates; one need only consider the millions of plans which cannot at present be exploited on computer in developed countries for lack of such digitalization.
• * Data capture, updating and delivery of the results drawn from specifically African data banks; Africa is the depository of a mass of data of general interest for the whole of humankind: archaeological, historical, linguistic, political, legal, economic, scientific (meterological, among others); rather than allow developing countries to do the exploitation, would it not be more appropriate to promote the creation of African data banks, managed by Africans, put at the disposal of other continents under mutually satisfactory financial conditions? Such an enterprise could start with a few nuclei springing from dynamic centres such as Senegal, and then spread to the sub-region and later to the entire continent. The data bank of the Informatics Centre of Bantu Civilizations (CICIBA) would seem a good example of the kind of application which could be promoted.

The question of South-North communications tariffs remains an essential prerequisite of all viable exploitation of these potentialities.

2.6.6.2.4 Inter-African Communications Networks

The recent appearance of revolutionary communications techniques is an opportunity for African countries, which are still at the stage of not having invested in very expensive infrastructure on the ground.

A significant characteristic of cellular mobile telephones is their ability to do without a physical network of wires and cables which took about a century to lay in developed countries. The gradual installation of "boundary markers" within the "cells", fictitiously apportioned on the ground, considerably reduces the cost of infrastructures: each terminal (mobile phone) communicates by radio (Hertzian link) with the delimiter of the cell in which it is placed. The delimiter transmits to the delimiter of the correspondent, who retransmits to the latter.

The system is most effective in a totally digitized environment: the simulated voice, transformed into computer code, becomes ordinary information. Provided that the appropriate software is available, all kinds of processing is possible (such as security coding). However, the ability to transmit numeric data permits the transfer of data without vocal importance: computer data, graphicdata such as fax, even television, provided that there are appropriate techniques for data compression.

These entirely new communication networks (the European GSM, of this type, was launched in July '92) are an opportunity Africa should grasp, given that it could "skip" the laborious, lengthy and expensive stage of physically laying the networks. These new networks could be extended gradually, starting with centres of economic activity, spreading to the whole country, region, and by means of satellites, to the continent and the world at large (cf projects for satellite networks such as Motorola's "Iridium")

Furthermore, numeric transmission allows some voice transmission which is valuable in the often difficult African climatic conditions.

2.6.6.2.5 Education and Training: Teleconferencing

Communications are the essential foundations which underpin development. This emerges clearly if one looks at the map of France. Today's major towns follow the railway network laid down in the 19th century.

Many basic human activities can take place without the physical displacement of persons, despite the undeniable psychological information which can be lost by their physical absence. Teleconferencing, the technique of meetings without the physical presence of the participants, made possible by the transmission, in real time, of sound and image, developed rapidly in the USA before and after the Gulf War, when the security of air transport was at risk. The advantages observed on that occasion consolidated the success of teleconferencing, once the danger had passed. These were; much lower cost of meetings; greater brevity of dialogue (no chatting); precision of thinking; possibility of archiving from the beginning at marginal cost, etc.

Teleteaching is merely an elaboration of the same concept - a teleconference on another scale, with other aims. If some experiments have failed (including African ones), it is more for lack of adaptation of teaching methods than because the technology was inappropriate. There are great opportunities, if the networks mentioned above (2.6.6.2.4) are available: providing throughout the country a uniformly high quality education; using multimedia techniques (voice, non-vocal sound, prepared images and images in real time); international exchanges, and, above all, reaching students in the most distant corners of the country at relatively low cost; recording and rediffusion, etc. Teaching can thus be freed from the constraints of time and space.

These new techniques are no longer at the stage of prototypes or experiments. Teleconferencing and teleteaching already benefit from much experience in developed countries. It is up to African countries to learn from this experience and adapt it to their own needs.

For example, Senegal, by the intermediary of the Ministry for the Modernisation of the State and of Technology, is presently studying, with the American operator GTE, the possibility of introducing a network within the country, serving 30 points, linked by satellite to the University of New York (Project SMKS), and going as far as enabling Senegalese students to obtain American diplomas. Such a system could equally support administrative links, other than those of the Ministry of Education. The technical feasibility is not in question. What is needed is a firm resolve to achieve concrete results, however daunting the difficulties may prove to be.

2.7. General Conclusions

2.7.1.Effectiveness of Informatics Policies

2.7.1.1 Field of Applications

For most of the francophone countries the development and implementation of informatics policies by appropriate institutions has taken place mainly in the public and parastatal sectors. With the exception of Congo, and, for a long time, Madagascar, the private sector was only indirectly considered.

It must be recognized that everywhere the government was the main client for informatics. The private sector remained undeveloped, at least in the 1960s, either by force of circumstance or by political choice, especially in economies geared to scientific socialism.

Informatics policies were not always easily accepted, and often met with hostility from public bodies and even more from parastatal enterprises which preferred to safeguard their right to initiate their own policies.

2.7.1.2 Mechanisms of Implementation

Governments had recourse to the following types of mechanism:

a) A National Informatics Commission or Committee, for formulating and developing the policy;

b) A National Department or Executive Office. A different situation arose in Madagascar, where, from 1979 to 1988, the Special Counsellor of the Head of State held personally the responsibilities assigned elsewhere to these agencies.

c) Informatics Plans. Some countries, such as Senegal, produced these regularly; others, such as Côte d'Ivoire, twice to date, and yet others, such as Congo, produced one;

d) Legal instruments regulating imports.

2.7.1.3 Impact of Informatics Policies

Wherever the formulation and management of informatics projects was totally in the hands of a national organization, set up to implement informatics policy, the country experienced a delay in relation to its real level of development. The cases of Congo and Madagascar illustrate this point.

Although, at a given period, Congo injected substantial resources into informatics, the country did not reach the hoped for phase of development, Madagascar even less so, few resources having been allocated to informatics projects.

Benefiting from a more diversified economy and from a substantial private sector, Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal, where informatics policies were more indicative and stimulative, appreciable results were achieved, thanks to the cooperation of the concerned sectors.

On the credit side of these organs of promotion, it can be observed that financial departments of government ministries and agencies at first merely submitted to introducing information technology, but eventually adopted it, becoming more and more proficient, until today they could not do without it. Success was relative. It is also true that many of these enterprises did not survive the economic crisis which raged throughout the region. In general, however, they can no longer operate without the computer. In other areas of public administration penetration of the computer was selective and progressive.

It is microcomputing, because of its affordable cost and user friendliness, which has done more for the promotion of informatics than all the mechanisms and legal instruments put together.

2.7.2 New Directions

2.7.2.1 A New Situation

Many of the mechanisms and directions of informatics policy have become obsolete and inappropriate as a result of the microcomputer revolution. Today the microcomputer can be a personal working tool as easily as it can be a collective one. Software exists for all sorts of applications and all that is required is that it is obtained from the editors. Using a computer is becoming easier and easier, but above all its cost has come down to a point where it is within reach of many more people.

Telecommunications facilitate dialogue among computers of any capacity, and access to numerous data banks is possible from anywhere.

User training is provided by many centres and businesses. Universities and specialized schools are more and more equipped with the human skills, hardware and software needed to educate and train computer professionals.

Problems of compatibility of equipment have been considerably reduced. Standards have developed and it has become difficult for a manufacturer to hold a client captive.

The problem of creating computer awareness, which is still relevant, takes on a different complexion. Many countries have abandoned their informatics guidance mechanisms and their former claims.

2.7.2.2 New Objectives

The new objectives for promotion and guidance mechanisms appropriate for a present-day national informatics policy would appear to be those assigned to the Senegalese DINFO.

The National Informatics Committee is maintained as a meeting place, to exchange views on projects initiated by ministries, to establish priorities and coordinate action.

The Informatics Plan ensures that objectives are followed and arbitrates on the allocation of resources.

A mechanism similar to DINFO in Senegal would seem to be necessary. It would have the following objectives :

1. Preparation of meetings of the National Informatics Committee and monitoring of the implementation of its decisions;

2. Monitoring of technical assistance in informatics and relations with economic operators;

3. Coordination in the deployment of informatics staff in ministries and parastatal organisations;

4. Preparation and establishment of master plans and formulation of projects;

5. Definition of standards, methods and systems for the formulation. implementation and evaluation of projects;

6. Initiation of pilot projects of national interest;

7. Keeping a watching brief on technological developments and providing advice on launching projects;

8. Study of legal problems concerning the use of information technology;

9. Coordination of multipartner projects;

10.Modification of mechanisms, methods and procedures concerning the implementation of information systems;

11.Study of the state of the art in courseware and teaching aids, and research on computers in education;

12.Development of a programme of informatics for all, and support for professional informatics associations;

13.Pursuit of relations with foreign and international teaching establishments and participation in selection of informatics students applying for scholarships;

14.Organization of awareness raising and training of staff in the techniques and methods of informatics.

2.7.2.3 Justification

There are computer projects which, by their very nature, interest several ministerial departments and often even the entire nation. Formulating, implementing and operating such projects requires numerous consultations and, ultimately, arbitration, an activity best assigned to an organism with the appropriate powers.

Equally, other projects in the nature of pilot projects can take off only with the support of a promotion organism, the outlook and scope of which overarches sectors often operating within traditional confines, or fearful of the uncertain outcome of such initiatives.

Lastly there are spheres which, without this dedicated mechanism, would have neither any obvious officer in charge nor convinced promoters; foreign relations, keeping up with technological developments, definition of standards, adoption of new methods and techniques, monitoring inter-ministerial decisions, consideration and proposals for legal provisions to improve the awarding of contracts to informatics companies - all this cannot be left to chance.

Presently computer training is being offered by innumerable schools and private institutes, which are beginning to resemble buyers and sellers in a vast market for dupes and con artists. Supervision of computer training institutions should be exercised, so as to protect applicants from all kinds of disappointment.